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FOURTH REPOirr

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MICHIGAN

OF SCIENCE

Exchanges should be sent to Dr. G. P. Burns,
Librarian, Ann Arbor, Mich.

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NBW YORK

B<^)TAMCAL

GAROaN

PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE COUNCIL

BY

JAMES B. POLLOCK, Sc. D.,

SECRETARY

BY AUTHORITY

LANSING, MICH.
ROBERT SMITH PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS AND BINDERS

1904

FOURTH REPoirr

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MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

CONTAINING AN ACCOUNT OF THE ANNUAL MEETING

HELD AT

ANN ARBOR, MARCH 27, 28 AND 29, 1902

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NEW YORK

Bi)TANlCAL
GARDBN

PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE COUNCIL

BY

JAMES B. POLLOCK, Sc. D.,

SECRETARY

BY AUTHORITY

LANSING. MICH.
ROBERT SMITH PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS AND BINDERS

1904

FOURTH REPORT OF THE MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF

SCIENCE.

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAI^

To Honorable A. T. Bliss. Oovernor of the State of Michigan:

Sir — I have the honor to submit herewith the Fourth Annual Report
of the Michigan Academy of Science, for publication in accordance with
Section 14 of Act No. 44, of the Public Acts of the Legislature of 1899.

Respectfully,

JAS. B. POLLOCK,
Secretary of the Michigan Academy of Science.
Ann Arbor, Mich., Dec. 18. 1903.

LfBRARV

TABLE OF CONTENTS. new voj^k

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Constitution of Micliisan Academy of Science 7

By-Laws of Michigan Academy of Science 10

Minutes of the eighth annual meeting 14

List of papers presented at eighth annual meeting 19

Articles published in this report:

The Value of Scientific research to the State, V. C. Vaughan 22-34

Determination of the Aberration Constant from the Zenith Distances of

Polaris, Measured with the Walker Meridian Circle, by Asaph Hall, Jr. 35-88

Note on the Expansion of Michigan, by M. S- W. Jefferson 88-91

Animal Husbandry — Its Value as an Educational Factor, by J. J.

Ferguson 92-95

The Necessity and Possibilities for Crop Improvement in Michigan, by

Geo. Severance 95-100

What Shall the Michigan Farmer Grow for Fence Posts and Telegraph

Poles, by W. J. Beal 100-104

The Social Sciences and Agriculture, by K. L. Butterfleld 105

The Future of the White Pino and Norway Pine in Michigan, by W. J.

Beal 106-107

Some of the Changes Now Taking Place in a Forest of Oak Openings,

by W. J. Beal 107-108

Wood Structure of Elms, Maples and Oaks as a Means of Identifying

Species, by R. L. Brown 109-112

Response of Roots to Chemical Stimuli, by Anna L. Rhodes 112

A Preliminary List of the Saprophytic Fleshy Fungi Known to Occur

in Michigan, by B. O. Longyear 113-124

The Flora of the Vicinity of Manistee, Michigan, by Francis Potter

Daniels 125-144

Ecology of the Flora of Sturgis, Michigan, and Vicinity, by Francis

Potter Daniels 145-159

Douglass Houghton, by I. C. Russell 160-162

Bela Hubbard, by I. C. Russell 163-165

Magnetic Phenomena around deep borings, by A. C. Lane 166-167

A Remarkable Dust Shower, by C. D. McLouth 168-173

Width of Meander Belts, by M. S. W. Jefferson 174

Work of the State Board of Health for the Restriction of Smallpox, by

Wm. M. Force 175-188

The Aeration of Milk, by C. E. Marshall 188-191

Note on the Reptiles and Batrachians of Eaton* County, by Hubert

L. Clark •. 192-194

Notes on Metacrinus, by W. L. Sperry 195-199

Habits of a Muskrat in Captivity, by L. J. Cole and H. C. Tooker 199-205

Plans for a Biological Laboratory, by S. O. Mast 206-209

List of Members of the Michigan Academy of Science 210-211

CONSTITUTION OF THE MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF

SCIENCE.

ARTICLE I.
This Society shall be known as The Michigan Academy op Science.

ARTICLE II: Objects.

The objects of this Academy shall be scientific research and the diffu-
sion of knowledge concerning the various departments of science.

ARTICLE III: Membership.

The Academy shall be composed of Resident Members, Corresponding
Members, Honorary Members, and Patrons.

1. Resident Members shall be persons who are interested in scientific
work and resident in the State of Michigan.

2. Corresponding Members shall be persons interested in science, and
not resident in the State of Michigan.

3. Honorary Members shall be persons distinguished for their attain-
ments in science, and not resident in the State of Michigan, and shall
not exceed twenty-five in number.

4. Patrons shall be persons who have bestowed important favors
upon the Academy, as defined in Chapter I, Paragraph 4 of the By-Laws.

5. Resident Members alone shall be entitled to vote and hold office in
the Academy.

ARTICLE IV: Officers.

1. The officers of the Academy shall consist of a President, a Vice
President of each Section that may be organized, a Secretary, and a
Treasurer.

These officers and all past presidents shall constitute an Executive
Committee, which shall be called the Council.

2. The President shall discharge the usual duties of a presiding offi-
cer at all meetings of the Academy, and of the Council. He shall take
cognizance of the acts of the Academy and of its officers, and cause the
provisions of the Constitution and By-Laws to be faithfully carried into
effect. He shall also give an address to the Academy at the closing meet-
ing of the year for which he is elected.

8 MICHIGAN ACADEMY OB" SCIENCE.

3. The duties of the President iu case of his absence or disability shall
be assumed by one of the Vice-Presidents who shall be designated by the
Council.

The Vice-Presidents shall be chairmen of their respective Sections.
They shall encourage and direct research in the special branches of science
included within the Sections over which they preside.

4. The Secretary shall keep the records of the proceedings of the
Academy, and a complete list of the members, with the dates of their
election and disconnection with the Academy. He shall also be the Sec-
retary of the Council.

The Secretary shall co-operate witli the President in attending to the
ordinary affairs of the Society. He shall attend to the preparation, print-
ing and mailing of circulars, blanks, and notifications of elections and
meetings. He shall superintend other printing ordered by the Academy,
or by the I'resident, and shall have charge of its distribution under the
direction of the Council.

The Secretary, unless other provision be made, shall also act as Editor
of the publications of the Academy and as Librarian and Custodian of
property.

5 : The Treasurer shall have the custody of all funds of the Academy.
He shall keep an account of receipts and disbursements in detail, and
this account shall be audited as hereinafter provided.

6. The Academy may elect an Editor to supervise all matters con-
nected with the publication of the transactions of the Academy, under
the direction of the Council, and to perform the duties of Librarian until
such time as the Academy shall make that an independent office.

7. The Council is "clothed with executive authority, and with the legis-
lative powers of the Academy in the intervals between the latter's meet-
ings; but no extraordinary act of the Council shall remain in force
beyond the next following stated meeting, without ratification by the
Academy. The Council shall have control of the publications of the
Academy, under the provisions of the By-Laws and of resolutions from
time to time adopted. It shall receive nominations for members, and
on approval, shall submit such nominations to the Academy for action.
It shall have power to fill vacancies ad interim, in any of the offices of
the Academy.

8. Terms of Office. [As amended April 1, 1898.] The President, Vice
Presidents, Secretary, Treasurer, and Editor shall be elected annually,
and be eligible to re-election without limitation.

ARTICLE V : Voting'and Elections.

1. All elections shall be by ballot. To elect a Resident Member, Cor-
responding Member, Honorary Member, or Patron, or impose any spe-
cial tax shall recpiire the assent of three- fourths of all Resident Members
voting.

2. Any member may be expelled by a vote of nine-tenths of all members
voting, providing notice that such a movement is contemplated be given
at a meeting of the Academy three months previous to such action.

3. Election of Memt.ers. Nominations for Resident membership
shall be made by two Resident Members, according to a form to be pro-
vided by the Council. One of these Resident ^fembers must be per-

CONSTITUTION. 9

sonally acquainted with the nominee and his qualifications for member-
ship. ' The Council shall submit the nominations received by them, if
approved, to a vote of the Academy at a ron^ulMr meetiuj;-.

4. Election of Ofkicers. Kominations for oflice shall be made by
the Council as provided in the By-Laws. The nominations shall be sub-
mitted to a vote of the Academy at its winter [Annual] meeting. The
officers thus elected shall enter upon duty at llie adjournment of the
meeting.

5. At the meeting in which this Constitution is adopted the officers
for the ensuing year shall be elected in such manner as the Academy
may determine.

ARTICLE VI : Meetings.

1. The Academy shall hold at least two stated meetings a year — a
Suminer [or Field] Meeting, and a Winter [or A^iniial] Meeting. The
date and place of each meeting shall be fixed by the Council, and an-
nounced by circular at least thrc^ mouths before the meeting. The pro-
gramme of each meeting shall be determined by the Council, and an-
nounced beforehand, in its general features. The details of the daily
sessions shall also be arranged by the Council.

2. All members must forward to the Secretary, if possible before the
convening of the Academy, full titles of all papers which they propose to
present during the meeting, with a statement of the time that each will
occupy in delivery and a brief abstract of their contents. From the
abstracts thus presented, the Council will determine the fitness of the
paper for the programme.

3. This section stricken out April 1, 1898.

4. Special Meetings of the Academy may be called by the Council,
and must be called upon the written request of twenty Resident Members.

5. Stated Meetings of the Council, shall be held coincidently with
the stated meetings of the Academy. Special meetings of the Council
may be called by the President at such times as he may deem necessary.

6. Quorum. At meetings of the Academy a majority of those regis-
tered in attendance shall constitute a quorum. Four members shall con-
stitute a quorum of the Council.

ARTICLE VII : Publications.

The publications of the Academy shall be under the immediate control
of the Council, but the Council shall accord to each author the right,
under proper restrictions, to publish through whatever channel he may
choose.

ARTICLE VIII: Sections.

Members not less than eight in number may by special permission of
the Academy unite to form a Section for the investigation of any branch
of science. Each Section shall bear the name of the science which it
represents, thus: The Section of (Agriculture) of the Michigan Academy
of Science.
2

10 MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

2. Each Section is empowered to perfect its own organization as
limited by the Constitution and By-Laws of the Academy.

ARTICLE IX: Amendments.

This Constitution may be amended at any Winter [Annual] meeting
by a three-fourths vote of all the Resident Members present.

BY-LAWS.
CHAPTER I: Membership.

1. No person shall be accepted as a Resident Member unless he pay
his iniation fee, and the dues for the year, within three months after
notification of his election. The iniation fee shall be one (1) dollar and
the annual dues one (1) dollar, the latter payable on or before the annual
meeting in advance; but a single prepayment of twenty-five (25) dollars
shall be accepted as commutation for life.

2. The sums paid in commutation of dues shall be invested, and the
interest used for the ordinary purposes of the Academy during the payer's
life, but after his death the sum shall be covered into the Research Fund.

3. An arrearage in payment of annual dues shall deprive a Resident
Member of the privilege of taking part in the management of the Academy
and of receiving the publications of the Academy. An arrearage con-
tinuing over two (2) years shall be construed as notification of with-
drawal.

4. Any person eligible under Article III of the Constitution, may be
elected Patron upon the payment of one hundred (100) dollars to the
Research Fund of the Academy.

CHAPTER II : Officials.

1. The President shall countersign, if he approves, all duly author-
ized accounts and orders drawn on the Treasurer for the disbursement
of money.

2. The Secretary, until otherwise ordered by the Academy, shall per-
form the duties of Editor, Librarian, and Custodian of the property of
the Society.

3. The Academy may elect an Assistant Secretary.

4. The Treasurer shall give bonds, with two good sureties approved
by the Council, in the sum of five hundred dollars, for the faithful and
honest performance of his duties, and the safe-keeping of the funds of
the Academy. He may deposit the funds in bank at his discretion, but
shall not invest them without the authority of the Council. His ac-
counts shall be balanced on the first day of the Annual Meeting of each
year.

BY-LAWS. 11

5. The minutes of the proceedings of the Council shall be subject to
call by the Academy.

CHAPTER III: Election op Membees.

1. Nominations for Resident Membership may be proposed at any time
on blanks to be supplied by the Secretary.

2. The form for the nomination of Resident Members shall l)e as
follows :

In accordance with his desire, we respectfully nominate for Resident Member of
the Michigan Academy of Science
(Full name)
(Address)
(Occupation)

(Branch of Science interested in, work already done, and publications if anyj
(Signed by at least two Resident Members)

The form when filled is to be transmitted to the Secretary.

3. The Secretary shall bring all nominations before the Council at
either the winter [Annual] or summer [Field] meeting of the Academy,
and the Council shall signify its approval or disapproval of each.

4. At the same or the next stated meeting of the Academy, the Sec-
retary shall present the list of candidates to the Academy for election.

5. Corresponding Members, Honorary Members, and Patrons shall be
nominated by the Council, and shall be elected in the same manner as
Resident Members.

CHAPTER IV: Election op Officers.

. Section 1. At the Annual Meeting the election of oflScers shall take
place, and the officers elected shall enter on their duties at the end of
the meeting.

Section 2. The Council shall nominate a candidate for each office,
but each Section may recommend to the Council a candidate for its
Vice President. Additional nominations may be made by any member of
the Academy. All elections shall be made by ballot.

CHAPTER V : Financial Methods.

1. No pecuniary obligation shall be contracted without express sanc-
tion of the Academy or the Council. But it is to be understood that all
ordinary, incidental and running expenses have the permanent sanction
of the Academy, without special action.

2. The creditor of the Academy must present to the Treasurer a fully
itemised bill, certified by the official ordering it, and approved by the Pres-
ident. The Treasurer shall then pay the amount out of any funds not
otherwise appropriated, and the receipted bill shall be held as his
voucher.

3. At each annual meeting, the President shall call upon the Academy

12 MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

to choose two members, not members of the Council, to whom shall be
referred the books of the Treasurer, duly posted and balanced to the
first day of the Annual Meeting as specified in the By-Laws, Chapter II,
Paragraph 4. These Auditors shall examine the accounts and vouchers
of the Treasurer, and any member or members of the Council may be
present during the examination. The report of the Auditors shall be
rendered to the Academy before the adjournment of the meeting and the
Academy shall take appropriate action.

CHAPTER VI : Publications.

1. The publications are in charge of the Council and under their con-
trol, limited only as given by Article VII, of the Constitution.

2. One copy of each publication shall be sent to each Resident Mem-
ber, Corresponding Member, Honorary Member, and Patron, and each
author shall receive fifty copies of his memoir. This provision shall not
be understood as including publications in journals not controlled by the
Academy.

CHAPTER VII : The Research Fund.

1. The Research Fund shall consist of moneys paid by the general
public for publications of the Academy, of donations made in aid of re-
search, and of the sums paid in commutation of dues according to the
By-Laws, Chapter I, Paragraphs 2 and 4.

2. Donors to this fund, not Members of the Academy, in the sum
of twenty-five dollars, shall be entitled without charge, to the publications
subsequently appearing.

CHAPTER VIII : Order of Business.

1. The Order of Business at the Winter [Annual] Meeting shall be
as follows:

(1) Call to order by the Presiding Officer.

(2) Introductory ceremonies.

(3) Statements by the President.

(4) Report of the Council.

(5) Report of the Treasurer, and appointment of the Auditing Committee.

(6) Election of officers of the next ensuing Administration.

(7) Election of Members.

(8) Announcement of the hour and place for the Address of the retiring Presi-

dent.

(9) Necrological notices.

(10) Miscellaneous announcements.

(11) Business motions and resolutions, and disposal thereof.

(12) Reports of Committees, and disposal thereof.

(13) Miscellaneous motions and resolutions.

(14) Presentation of memoirs.

2. At an adjowned session, the order shall be resumed at the place
reached on the previous adjournment, but new announcements, motions

BY-LAWS. 13

and resolutions, will be in order before the resuin[)tion of the business
pending at the adjournment of the last preceding session.

3. At the Summer [Field] Meeting, the items of business under
numbers (5), (6), (8), (0), shall be omitted.

4. At any Special Meeting the Order of Business shall be (1), (2),
(3), (7), (10), followed by the special business for which the meeting was
called.

CHAPTER IX : Amendments.

These By-Laws may be amended by a majority vote of the members
present at any regular meeting.

EIGHTH ANNUAL MEETING OF THE MICHIGAN ACADEMY

OF SCIENCE.

MINUTES OF THE COUNCIL MEETING AT ANN ARBOR, JAN-
UARY 25, 1902.

At the above named meeting the Council transacted the following
business :

The time of the eighth annual meeting was set for March 27, 28 and 29,
1902, and the place, Ann Arbor,

The business of securing a public lecturer was left in the hands of the
Secretary.

After an informal discussion, the consensus of opinion was to the effect
that when students' work was presented to the Academy it should be
vouched for by some member of the Academy acquainted with its char-
acter.

The rule limiting publication to articles which were written by mem-
bers only, was rescinded, and acceptance of articles for publication was
left to the Secretary on consultation with the Vice Presidents of the dif-
ferent sections.

The question of furnishing free reprints to authors of articles pub-
lished in the Academy Reports was considered, and it was recommended
that authors pay for reprints if they want them.

It was voted that photo-engravings of Douglas Houghton and Bela
Hubbard be put into the next report of the Academy.

C. W. Bennett of Coldwater was recommended for resident membership
in the Academy.

It was voted that if eight or ten men desire to form a Section of
Geology and Geography the Council gives its encouragement.

A committee of three was appointed to confer with the State Geologist
to take into consideration the extension of the public surveys. The chair-
man appointed V. M. Spalding, W. H. Sherzer, and C. E. Barr.

Council adjourned.

JAMES B. POLLOCK, Secretary.

COUNCIL MEETING. 11:30 A. M., THURSDAY. MARCH 27, 1902.

The Council recommended the people named in the following list to
election as resident members :
D. H. Davis, Ann Arbor.
John F. Nellist. Grand Rapids.

EIGHTH ANNUAL MEETING. 1*

Alexander W. Blain, Detroit.

Mark S. W. Jefferson, Ypsilanti.

F. B. H. Brown, Ypsilanti.

Wm. Funk Cooper, Lansing.

Edson S. Bastin, Ann Arbor,

S. Lawrence Bigelow, Ann Arbor.

Mary A. Goddard, Ypsilanti.

Caroline C. Harvey, Detroit.

Lawrence P. Waldron, Ionia.

A Council meeting was called at 12 p, m. Friday, in the Museum Lec-
ture room.

A business session of the Academy was called for Friday, at 4 p. m.,
in Room C, main hall.

COUNCIL MEETING, FRIDAY, MARCH 28, 12:15 P. M.

The following were recommended for resident membership :

Henry Newton Hornbeck, Agricultural College.

William G. Carhart, Ann Arbor.

Frank L. Rainey, Orchard Lake.

For oflScers the Council recommended :

President, I. C. Russel, Ann Arbor.

Vice Presidents :

Section of Agriculture, W. J. Beal, Agricultural College.

Section of Geology, M. S. W. Jefferson, Ypsilanti.

Section of Botany, C. F. Wheeler, Agricultural College.

Section of Sanitary Science, C. E. Marshall, Agricultural College.

Section of Zoology, H. L. Clark. Olivet.
Secretary, Jas. B. Pollock, Ann Arbor.
Treasurer, Raymond Pearl, Ann Arbor.

It was voted that committee reports, minutes, etc., be printed and dis-
tributed beforehand to save time at the general sessions.

It was voted to pay for publishing Prof. Jefferson's maps if the Board
of State Auditors refuse to do so.
Council adjourned.

At an informal meeting of the Council called just before the business
session on Friday, at 4 p. m., the following were recommended for Resi-
dent Members :

G. P. Burns, Ph. D., Ann Arbor.

John M. Grove, Hillsdale.

W. N. Fuller, Ann Arbor.

SPECIAL COUNCIL MEETING, FRIDAY, MARCH 28, AT 5 :30 P. M.

A petition signed by eleven members to establish a section of Science
Teaching, was accepted and Prof. W. H. Sherzer was recommended for
Vice-President.

Council adjourned indefinitely.

JAMES B. POLLOCK, Secretary.

16 MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

MINUTES OF THE ACADE]\IY OF SCIENCE, MEETING THURS-
DAY. MARCH 27, 1902.

The President culled the meeting to order and the minutes of the last
meeting were read and approved.

The report of the Council meeting was given and the Secretary was
instructed to cast the ballot for all those recommended by the Council for
resident membership.

Delos Fall and F. C. Newcombe were appointed an auditing committee
to examine the Treasurer's report whenever it should arrive.

The committee on legislation reported that there was nothing to be
done except when the legislature was in session.

Prof. Sherzer read a report of the committee to confer with the State
Geologist. The report was adopted and the committee continued.

It was reported by the Secretary that in accordance with the action of
the Council a petition with more than the required number of names had
been presented, asking for the establishing of a Section of Geology and
Geography. Such a Section had been organized, a program had been ar-
ranged, and the Section was ready for its first meeting.

Dr. Vaughn invited the members to meet Major Reed at his house after
the lecture Friday evening.

Papers were read, as per program, by C. A. Davis, Asaph Hall, Jr.,
I. C. Russel, and Lieut. Schneider. The last paper, dealing with "The
Teaching of Meteorology in the Public Schools," was discussed by sev-
eral members, and Delos Fall offered to- see that it was put into print
for general distribution among teachers.

Meeting adjourned till 4 p. m. Friday.

MINUTES OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE, MEETING FRIDAY,

MARCH 28, 1902, 4 :30 P. M.

When the list of oflficers recommended by the Council was read Prof.
C. F. Wheeler declined the nomination for Vice President of the Section
of Botany and the name of Prof. F. C. Newcombe was substituted for that
of Wheeler. With this change the Secretary was instructed to cast the
ballot of the Academy for the officers recommended by the Council. They
were as follows:

President, I. C. Russel.
Vice Presidents:

Section of Agriculture, W. J. Beal,
Section of Botany, F. C. Newcombe.
Section of Geology and Geography. M. S. W. Jefferson.
Section of Sanitary Science, C. E. Marshall.
Section of Zoology, Hubert L. Clark.
Secretary, Jas. B. Pollock.
Treasurer, Raymond Pearl.

The Secretary was instructed to cast the ballot for G. P. Burns, Ph. D.,
W. G. Carhart, John M. Grove, Frank L. Rainey, and H. N. Hornbeck,
for resident members, all of whom were recommended by the Council.

EIGHTH ANNUAL MEETING. 17

Prof. Reighard reported for the committee on affiliation that it was
either not de?ired or was inii)raoti('al)le for the several orp:anizations
which had been approached on the subject, but that those members of
the joint committee re]>reseutinfi' the Archaeological Society and the Mich-
igan Branch of tlie American Chemical Society would recommend to their
respective societies that their members join the Academy and organize
sections in the branch of science in which they were interested.

The report of the committee was accepted and the committee continued.

A recess of 5 minutes was taken, and during this recess a meeting of the
Council was held.

^A'hen the meeting had reconvened the petition to organize a Section of
Science Teaching was accepted and Prof. W. H. Sherzer was elected Vice
President for that Section.

It was voted that the meeting of the Section for Science Teaching be
not held at the same time as those of other sections.

It was voted that we invite the chairman of the Biological Conference
of the Schoolmasters' Club to preside over the joint session.

Academy adjourned indefinitely.

JAMES B. POLLOCK, Secretary.

COUNCIL MEETING, SATURDAY, DECEMBER 20, 1902.

The date of the ninth annual meeting was left to the Secretary to
arrange the same week as the meeting of the Schoolmasters' Club, at the
time of the spring vacation in the secondary schools,

Orlando C. Charlton of Kalamazoo College was recommended for Resi-
dent Membership in the Academy.

It was voted that Pres-Mdent Russel give the public evening lecture on
the subject of "Volcanoes."

The Secretary was instructed to secure the services of one of the fol-
lowing named men, if possible, to give an address before the Section of
Science Teaching: W. F. Oanong. Northampton, Mass.; W. N. Davis,
Cambridge, Maps.; R. D. Salisbury, Chicago; T. C. Chamberlin, Chicago.

It was voted that the committee on Natural History Survey aj)pointed
by the Council in January, 1902, be discharged, because a committee was
previously aj)pointed to look after that matter.

Prof. Jefferson was added to the committee on Topographical Survey.

The Council recommended to the Academy the appointment of a
Librarian.

It was voted that Prof. Sherzer be requested to present to the Council
a plan for systematic handling and identification of Natural History
material.

It was voted that reports of progress in the Natural History Survey
of the State be put in the hands of the Vice Presidents and the Secretary,
papers to be given at the coming meeting and to appear in the Report of
that meeting.

It was voted that the Secretary be requested to see that all drawings
are put in good shape, and to fix tho«p that cannot be fixed by the author,
before engraving for the Academy Report.
3

18 MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIEKCE.

Prosident Riissel was reqne?ted to spcure outa and biographical sketches
of I'cia Iliihliard and Donjjlas Houjihton for the Current Report.

I'rof. Sherzer was requested to supervise the pre]»aration of lists of
books, apparatus, etc., for the information of teachers in secondary
schools.

I'rof. Reijjhard and Dr. Pearl were appointed a committee to consider
the (juestion of re[)rints and rey)ort to the Academy at the next meeting.

I'rof. Xewcouibe and Dr. Pearl were named as members of the local
committee.

Jt was voted that reprints of Prof. Sherzer's list of books, etc., be
secured, cost not to exceed $15.00.

Council adjourned.

JAMES B. POLLOCK, Secretary.

LIST OF PA PEES PPESE^•TED AT THE EIGHTH AKISUAL
MEETIJSG OF THE MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF bCIEKCE.

GENERAL SESSIONS.

PRESIDENT, D8. V. C. VAUGHAN, ANN AEBOR.

1. The Value of Scientific Research to the State. Presidential Address, by Dr.
V. C. Vaiighan, Ann Arbor. .

2. Yellow Fever. Address to the general public. Major Walter Reed, Chair-
man of the Yellow Fever Commission, Washington, D. C.

3. Recent Progress in Forestry in Michigan. C. A. Davis, Ann Arbor.

4. Constant of Aberration from Observations of Polaris. Prof. Asaph Hall, Jr.,
Ann Arbor.

5. Topographic Survey of Michigan. Prof. I. C. Rus?ell, Ann Arbor.

6. Meteorology in the Public Schools. I ieut. Charles F. Schneider, Director
Michigan Section of U. S. Weather Bureau, Lansing.

7. A Series of Maps and a Note on the Expansion of Michigan. Prof. Mark
S. W. Jefferson, Ypsilanti.

SECTION OF AGRICUI-TUItE.

Vice President Prof. J. A. Jeffery, Agricultural College.

•

1. Animal Husbandry Work — Its Value as an Educational Factor. J. J. Fergu-
son, Agricultural College.

2. The Necessity and Possibilities of Improving Farm Crops in Michigan.
George Severance, Agricultura] College.

3. What Shall the Michigan Farmer Grow for Fence Posts and Telegraph Poles.
Prof. W. J. Beal, Agricultural College.

4. The Social Sciences and Agriculture. Kenyon L. Butterfleld, Ann Arbor.

SECTION OF BOTANY.

Vice President Prof. Charles F. Wheeler, Agricultural Col!ege.

1. The Tronic^l T aboratorv at Miami Florida. Prof. V. M. Sn''ldiug, Ann Arbor,

2. The Future of the White Pine and Norway Pine in Michigan. Prof. W, J,
Beal, Agricultural Col'ege.

3. Wood Structure of Elms. Oaks and Maples as a Means of Identifying Species.
R. L. Brown, Agricultural Colege.

4. The Biological Relations of Wat^r Plants About the Islands in We<:tern Lake
Erie. Prof. F. C. Newcorabe, Ann Arbor.

5. The Aquatic Form of Polygonum Mnhlentergii Watson. Caroline C. Harpey,
Detroit.

6. 0<^rurrence of Root Hairs in Submerffed Aquatics. Raymond Pond, Ann Arbor.

7. Variation in Leaf Form in Proserpinaca palustris. Dr. Geo. P. Burns, Ann
Arbor.

20 MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

8. Development of Mucilage Hairs in Brasenia peltata. A. N. Cody, Ann Arbor.

9. Some Comparisons of the Huron and Red River Valley Floras. R. L, Waldron,
Ann Arbor.

10. Report of Plant Distribution on the Flood Plain of the Huron River at
Ypsilanti. F. B. H. Brown, Ann Arbor.

11. Some Changes Now Taking Place in a Forest of Oak Openings. Prof. W. J.
Seal, Agricultural College.

12. Notes on Some Michigan Cyperaceae. Prof. C. F. Wheeler, Agricultural
College.

13. Some New Michigan Plants. Prof. C. F. Wheeler, Agricultural College.

14. Variations of the Prothallium in the pollengrain of Picea excelsa Link. Dr.
James B. Pollock, Ann Arbor.

15. A Preliminary List of Michigan Saphrophytic Fungi. B. O. Longyear, Agri-
cultural College.

IG. Monstrous Flowers of Epigoca repens from Northern Michigan. Chas. A.
Davis, Ann Arbor.

17. Response of Roots to Chemical Stimuli. Anna L. Rhodes, Bay City.

18. Effect of Some Liquids and Vapors on the Vitality of Seeds. J. W. T. Duvel,
Ann Arbor.

19. Preservation of Seeds Buried in the Soil. J. W. T. Duvel, Ann Arbor.

20. Development of the Macrosporangium of Yucca filamentoaa. H. S. Reed.
Ann Arbor.

SECTION OF GEOLOGV A.Ni) GEOGRAPHY.

(This section was organized at this meeting.)

1. Ice Scorings in Southeastern Michigan. Illustrated with Lantern. Prof.
W. H. Slierzer, Ypsilanti.

2. Methods of Geological Field Work in the Vermillion Iron Mining District.
Illustrated with Lantern. Edson S. Bastin, Ann Arbor.

3. Boulders of Disintegration from the Dakota Sandstone of Eastern Kansas.
Illustrated with Lantern. D. C. Schaffner, Ann Arbor.

4. The Cinder Buttes, Idaho. Prof. Israel C. Russell, Ann Arbor.

5. Notes on the Giant Fossil Beaver, Castoroides ohioensis. D. C. Schaffner.
Ann Arbor.

6. The Law Governing River Meanders. Prof. Mark S. W. Jefferson, Ypsilanti.

7. Magnetic Ph'enomena Around Deep Wells. Dr. A. C. Lane, Lansing.

8. A Remarkable Dust Shower. C. D. McLouth, Muskegon.

9. B?aches of Arenac County. W. M. Gregory, East.Tawas,

10. The Progress of the Detroit Rock Salt Shaft. Prof. W. H. Sherzer, Ypsilanti.

11. How Grand River was Formed. Frank Leverett, Ann Arbor.

SKCTION OF SANITARY SCIENCE.

Vice President Hon. Frank Wells, Lansing.

1. ■^''oT-k of the StPte B-^ard of Health for the Restriction of Consumption. Dr.
Henry B. Baker, Secretary State Board of Health, Lansing.

2. Work of the Stite Board of Health for the Restriction and Prevention of
Smallpox. Mr. Wm. M. Force, Lansing.

3. The Epidemic of Mild Smallpox. Dr. Guy L. Kiefer, Health Officer, Detroit.

4. Outbreaks of Cowpox in Michigan. Dr. Chas. T. McClintock, Detroit.

5. The Preparation and Use^ of Collodium Sacs. Dr. C. S. Gorsline.

6. The Aeration of Milk. Prof. C. B. Marshall, Agricultural College.

7. Trypanosome Infections. Mr. W. J. McNeal.

8. Germicidal Action of Metals. Mr. G. D. K. Hendry.

9. The Intracellular Toxin of the Dipththeria Bacillus. Mr. L. M. Gel'^ton.

10. The Re ation of Pigmpnt Production by Certain Bioteria to the Chemical
Compos'tion of the Nutrient Substratum. S. D. Migers, Yp'^ilanti.

11. The Chemistry of the Colon Bacillus. Miss M. F. Leach.

PAPERS PRESENTED. 21

12. The Chemiptry of the YpIIow Sarclne. Miss M. Wheeler.

13. Certain Bacterial Figments. Dr. A. J. Detweiler.

14. Borio Acid as a Food Preservative. Mr. W. H. Veenboer.

15. On the Organic Peroxides. Dr. F. G. Novy.

SECTION OF ZOOLOGY.

Vice President, Prof. Hubert Lyman Clark, Olivet.

1. Recent Advances in Michigan Conchology. Byrant Walker, Detroit.

2. Breeding Habits of the Common Sun-Fish (Eupomotis gibbosus). Illustrated
with lantern. Prof. .Jacob Reiajhard. Ann Arbor.

3. The Reptiles and Amphibians of Eaton County, Michigan. Prof. H. L. Clark,
Olivet.

4. Genera and Species of the Higher Vertebrates of Washtenaw County, Mich-
igan. Dr. J. B. Steere. Ann Arbor.

5. Some Japanese Crinoids (with exhibition of specimens). H. L. Clark, Olivet.

6. Notes on Metacrinus (with exhibition of specimens). W. L. Sperry, Olivet.

7. Notes on the Pvcnogonida of the West Coast of North America. Illustrated
with Lantern. L. J. Cole, Ann Arbor.

8. Notes on the Habits of the Muskrat in Captivity. L. J. Cole and H. C. Tooker
Ann Arbor.

9. The Morphological Significance of Non-Striped Muscle Fibre. Prof. J. P
McMurrich, Ann Arbor.

10. Notes on the Anatomy of a Calf with Two Heads. Illustrated with a Lantern
Raymond Pearl and L. J. Cole, Ann Arbor.

11. Variations in Necturus maculatus. D. C. Schaffner, Ann Arbor.

12. The Movements and Reactions of Pieces of Unicellular Organisms. Prol
H. S. Jennings and Miss Clara Jamieson, Ann Arbor.

13. The Biological Si.gnificar!ce of Unsymm'^trical Structure in Some Lower
Organisms. Illustrated with Lanterij. Prof. H. S. Jennings, Ann Arbor.

14. A Preliminary Report on the Development of the Miillerian Duct in Amia.
L. R. Waldron, Ann Arbor.

15. Some Features of the Reactions of Planarians. Raymond Pearl. Ann Arbor,

16. Notes on Methods of Making Anatomical Preparations. Maud M. De Witt,
Ann Arbor.

JOINT SESSION OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE AXD BIOLOGICAL SECTION OF THE SCHOOI^

masters' CLUB.

1. Original Work for the High School Teacher. E. L. Mosley, Sandusky High
School.

2. An Ideal Biological laboratory. Prof. S. O. Mast, Hope College.

3. Methods by Which New Varieties of Plants are Originated. Prof. C. F.
Wheeler, Michigan Agricultural College.

4. The Kind of Zoology for High School Work. J. W. Mathews, Western High
School. Detroit.

5. The Germicidal Action of Metals and Sunlight. Prof. F. G. Novy, University
of Michigan.

.22 MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

THE VALUE OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH TO THE STATE.

BY VICTOR C. VAUGHAN.

Mombers of the Michijjnn Aoadeniy of Science: — Please permit me to
thank vou in the first place for the honor which you have done me in
malvin}x me President for this year of the Academy. Every man desires
the good will of his neighbors, and so far as the scientific man is con-
cerned, honors of this kind make np the larger part of the recompense
which he receives for his toil. It is especially pleasant to be honored at
home, by tho?e who best know one. T thoroughly appreciate the fact that
my predecessors in this position have made it an honorable one, and I
feel that you have placed me in good company, and I only hope that I
may bear my.>-elf worthily,

I have decided to say a few words concerning the value of scientific
research to the state. In order that I may not use words loosely, and
that I may plainly indicate my meaning, I will attempt a short analysis
of this subject. In the fii'st place, it may very properly be asked, what
constitutes scientific research. I apprehend by these terms the acquisition
of new facts. The man who ad<'S to the sum total of knowledge possessed
by the race may be said to be an original investigator. The extent and the
value of his contribution may be small or great. This is a matter of sec-
ondary importance. The man who j)ushes out and ascertains and estab-
li.s-hes a fa<-t not hitherto demonstrated deserves a place among research
students. The history of mankind shows that our race since its earliest
beginnings has always been hampered by ignorance and its constant ac-
comj>animents prejudice and superstition. Civilization has progressed
by the slow and laborious process of extending farther and farther the
limits of human knowledge. In every century there have been a few
whose labors have in this wav contributed to the advancement of man
froni the savage to the civili/ed state. During some periods in the history
of the world the number of tho^-e engaged in acquiring knowledge and
advancing the bounds of civilization have been extremely small. These
are known as the dark ages of the world; when the bulk of mankind has
apparently receded rather than progressed. However, a close analysis
of the history of any age will show that even during the periods of the
most denye intellectual darkness there have always been some who have
given their lives to the advancement of knowledge. For the most part
these have been men of lowly position, whose work at the time attracted
but little or no attention. Occasionally they have been men of prom-
inence, and the ideas advanced by them have been rejected by their con-
temporaries, and in some instances they have met with personal persecu-
tions. There are the men who make up the list of martyrs which science
has furnished the world. There have been occasional periods of great
brilliancy Avhen scientific investigation has been popular and has met
with encouragement by those occupying high positions. Fortunately for
us, we live in one of these brilliant periods, when scientific investigation
is poj)ular, when its benefits are felt and appreciated by many.

I have already said that the value and extent of additional knowledge

VAUGHAN ON VALUE OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH TO STATE. 23

attained by the labors of a given man are variable quantities. As a rnle
the contiibntions of any one individual taken by themselves would be of
but little value, but when added to the sum total they mar be of the great-
est importance. The direct application that can be made of a scientitic
discovery is not a correct measure of its value. It often happens (h:it a
certain investigation leads to the discovery of a fact which at the time
appears to be wholly without value, but the advances made in subsecjuent
years may conveit the rough ])ebble dug from the mine, i»os?ibly centuiies
before, into a most valuable jewel. We are therefore correct when we
eay that science should be f)ursued for its own sake and without any
refei-cnce to its future utility. Discovery must always y)i-ecede use;
Bcicnce mu?t live and labor before art can exist; pure science must always
precede the a})pIication of scientific knowledge.

A scientific man is one who adds something to the surn total of knowl-
edge j)osses'sed by his race. Scientific research is the [)rocess by means
of which these discoveries are accomplished. The range of science is un-
limited; it embraces everything existent; it deals with both matter and
energy; it may concern itself with the infinitesimally small, or it may
lead to investigations that carry ones thoughts to distant j)arts of the
universe. Some people say that science is materialistic and the scientist
a materialist. Such assertions are made by those who know not whereof
they sj)eak. More than anyone else does the scientist realize that there
are other thirg? in the universe than matter. He knows that energy is
as real as substance. He is aware of the fact that light, heat, motion,
electricity, and other forms of energy are as real as the matter in which
or through which they manifest themselves. Tn fact, it is the scientist
who measures energy, and it is by means of his discoveries that the won-
derful applications of electricity and other forms of energy have been
made to the benefit of the race.

Having endeavored to explain what I mean by scientific research, I
now desire to say a few words concerning its value to the state. I shall
not attempt to measure the value of scientific discoveries in dollars and
cents, because I apprehend that there are other values which the mass of
mankind can appreciate, and which many at least are wise enough to pre-
fer to wealth. I think that all will agree with me when I state that a
scientific discovery which reduces sickness and death and gives to man-
kind longer life and greater happiness is of value to the state. A dis-
covery which lessens crime and empties our penal institutions is by do
means without value. A discovery which gives us grander conceptions of
the universe, which awakens and develops lofty ideals and leads to
strength of character and purity of life is one, the value of which to man-
kind caniiot be placed upon a financial basis.

A few illustrations of the good that has come to man from certain
scientific discoveries may not be amiss. Of 'course I cannot go very deeply
into the subject as I have neither the time nor the inclination to trespass
oi>on your indulgence too greatly.

Primitive man as he wandered over the earth, more of a beast than a
human being, saw many things undoubtedly which greatly surprised and
in some instances terrified him. Probably nothing else had for him
greater terror than the volcano, which his crude imagination and his su-
perstitious theology believed to be the opening into regions occupied by
demons and devils.^ If in pursuing his scarcely less savage game he came

24 MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE,

across fissures in the earth from which inflammable gases issued, and if
he saw these aflame, — as he probably did around the shores of the Cas-
pian Sea, — gi-eat indeed must have been his horror. These strange phe-
nomena were not explainable, and centuries passed before he had any
concei)tion of their true character. After a while he discovered coal and
began to use it, but century after century passed before he thought of
obtaining an inflammable gas from this substance. In 1726 one, Dr.
Stephen Hales, made, so far as we know, the first attempt to submit coal
to distillation and to obtain and utilize the gases that might be evolved
by this process. In a communication to the Philosophical Society he tells
of his experiments, which apparently were made with great scientific ac-
curacy, although on a very small scale. He not only distilled the coal,
collected the gases, but he determined the amount of the gas that could
in this way be obtained from a given quantity of coal, and he states that
from 158 grains of coal he obtained 180 grains of an inflammable gas.
Thirteen years later, or in 1739, the Keverend John Clayton in a contribu-
tion to the Royal Philosophic(\l Society detailed experiments of a similar
kind in which he distilled the coal and collected the gases in bladders.
From this time on for many years the formation of an inflammable gas
by the distillation of small quantities of coal was looked upon as an in-
teresting laboratory experiment, but of no special value, and it was not
until the year 1792 thnt Robert Murdoch made hig firrt attempts to obtain
coal gas in large quantities and utilize it for illuminating purposes. From
that time up to the present, every decade has seen some improvement in
the preparation or utilization of illuminating gap. The value of this dis-
covery to the world can hardly be summed up in a few words. In the
first place, morally it has been more efi'ective than many sermons. Before
our cities were lighted at night even the most frequented streets were
often the scenes of all kinds of crimes, among which murrTer was some-
times included. Street illumination has done more in policing cities than
could have been accomplished by an army of men. As the dark corners
have teen lighted up crime has disappeared or gradually receded into
the still darker recesses. The value of the discovery and utilization of
illuminating gas from an economic standpoint must amount to untojd
billions of dollars. It has enabled commerce to be carried on at night as
well as by dav. Illumination has permitted continuous work in manufac-
turins: establishments of many kinds; has given emnloyment to thousands,
and the world owes today a debt of gratitude to Hales, Clayton and others
who in the early part of the eighteenth century were engaged in scientific
research, probably without ever dreaming of the great benefit which their
little experiments might subsequently confer upon humanity.

In 1849 a physician by the name of Pollender busied himself with
studying microscopically the blood of certain animals both in health and
in disease. He first made himself perfectly familiar with the appearance
of normal bloofl, after which he began to observe the blood of man and
animnls while sufferinii' from disease. In the course of these investigar
tions he took the blood from a cow sick with anthrax and examined it
under his microscone. He observed minute rod-like bodies which he had
not found in the blood of healthy cows. He repeated this observation
many times, carefully comparing the blood of sick animals with those
of healthy ones. Finallv he concluded that these little rod-like bodies
observed in the blood of the sick animals had something to do with the

VAUGHAN ON VALUE OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH TO STATE. 25

dispaso from whicli tlioy suffored, and lie y)i'Osoiited to one of the journals
of the time a short contribution upon this subject. His labors attracted
but little attention and that little was for the most part in the form of
ridicule. Some wars later Davaine took u]) the rame line of work and
pushed it a little furth':»r. lie oonlirmed Pollender's observation of the
pre*-ence of the rod-like bodies in the blood of animals sick with anthrax,
but closer study showed him that these orjjanisms. — for such he believed
them to be, — were not always present in the earlier stages of the dis-
ease. Next he ascertained that if he took the blood containing these
rod-like bodies and injected it into a healthy animal the second animal
developed anthrax, while blood which did not contain these organisms
di i not transmit the disease to other animals. This was an important
step in advance. Occasionally there had been a physician who had
claimed that certain diseases must be due to minute micro-organisms or
germs, but no one had ever seen anything of this kind, because the
demonstration of the existence of germs had to await the development of
the compound microscope. After Davaine, his work was taken up by
Pasteur and then by Koch and a host of others until it has developed
into the great science of bacteriology. Now let us stop for a moment,
look about us. and see something of the great benefits that have come to
mankind from the researches of Pollendcr, Davaine, Pasteur. Koch, and
others. Upon the discoveries made by these men the whole science of pre-
ventve medicine as it stands today has been built. As a result of these
experinients the last fifty years has been freer from eipdemics than any
other equal period in the history of the world. Every time we disinfect
a room after a case of diT>htheria or scarlet fever we are utilizing that
knowledge, the first contribution to which was made by the modest physi-
cian Pollender in 18'9. It was this discovery, and the science that has
been built upon it, which enabled this nation in 1802 to arrest Asiatic
Cholera in New York harbor and prevent its entrance and dissemination
in this country. These discoveries have developed the various processes
of disinfection now in vogue by means of which the spread of disease has
been so greatly restricted. They have so changed methods of quarantine
that the name now applied to the prevention of the introduction of dis-
ease into a community or a country is a misnomer. In the ojden times
quarantine meant forty days of detention, and even with this, disease
w;)« not always arrested, becau^'c the germs lingered in the hair or in the
clothing during the period of quarantine and were subsequently carried
ashore and disseminated. Now quarantine has a wholly different mean-
ing. It means a few hours of detention with thorough disinfection, and
when scientifically done it means the certain restriction of disease. We
can hardly estimate the great benefit that this has been to commerce, and
the greater benefits that are still likely to follow from less prolonged
detention and more thorough disinfection. The science of bacteriology,
founded upon the simple experiments mentioned above, has enabled man-
kind to practically stamp out certain of the infectious diseases. For in-
stance, typhus fever, which once contributed largely to the mortality
lists of every Inrge city, now is known only in certain obscure and unclean
parts of the world. The mortality in typhoid fever has been reduced
from nearly thirty per cent to less than ten per cent, while at the same
tin'e the number of cases has been decreased in still greater proportion.
Under the knowledge which we have gained by the study of the causal
4

26 MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

relntion of bacteria to disease, and which had the small beginnings
ali-eadv referred to, even tuberculosis, the great white plague, is grad-
ually diminishing in virulence, the nuniber of cases is decreasing, the
death rate is diminishing, and if man continues to apply the rules for its
resii-ii'tiou which he has already devised, not more than a century or two
at most will pass until this disease will be known no more. Twenty
years ago there were wild hypotheses and vague conjectures concerning
the causation of certain diseases which greatly increased infantile mor-
tality. Man looked for the cause of these diseases in the sun spots, he
listened for it in the winds, he dug for it in the earth, he searched for
it in the water, but bacteriological study has shown him that the great
cause of cholera infantum and kindred diseases lies in milk which be-
comes poisonous on account of bacterial invasion and the elaboration of
toxins. Already it is estimated that of children sick with this disease,
thirty n'ore out of every hundred are saved now than was formerly pos-
sible. In other words, the per cent of recoveries has been increased from
fifty per cent to eighty per cent, and at the same time the number of
cases rf illness has been greatly reduced, — we cannot say just in what
proportion. These are some of the advantages that have come to man-
kind fi-om scientific research. Disease has been lessened, death has been
delayed, health an<l hapoiness have been multiplied. Are these not things
of value to the stnte? Not only have all these things been accomplished,
but possibly still greater good is to be found in the physical betterment
of those who have not been ill.

This snme science of bacteriology has enabled us not only to limit the
spread of the infectious diseases, biit it has given us the most brilliant
results ever attained in the cure of disease. It has largely robbed diph-
theria of its horrors and has reduced the mortality from this disease
fr(;i)) over fifty per cent to less than five per cent in cases in which
antitoxin is user] immediately on the appearance of the disease. This is
a triumph in curative medicine which the most sanguine and visionarj
man of even ten years ago could scarcely have expected. The same science
has given us a means of combatting that rare but distressing disease
known as hydrophobia, and of preventing the sanif'. Who can say that
the world has not been benefited by the labors of the pioneers in bacte-
riology? ' Who can overestimate the discoveries of Pollender and T>a-
vaine, which to their contemporaries seemed to be at most of only triflinaj
importance? Who can foretell the benefits that may come to mankind
from what appears to be a trifling scientific discovery?

The bacteriologist has not confined his labors to the study of those
microorganisms which cause disease, but he has gone farther and has
shown that some of these minute forms of life which we call germs are
capable of rendering great service to mankind. Only a few years ago it
was believed by many scientists that the amount of combiner] nitrogen
in the world is constantly decreasing, and that neither plants nor animals
are capable of utilizing the free nitrogen in the air. It was therefore
supposed to be a necessary conclusion that life on this planet must cease
as soon as all the combined nitrogen is used up. It was stnted thstt the
ex])losion of every ounce of gunpowder, whether the projectile' which it
cari'ied sti-uck a living object or not. carried death with it, inasmuch as it
less^ened the sum total of combined nitrogen in existence. The bacte-
riologist by his investigations has shown that this state of affairs is not

VAUGHAN ON VALUK OP SCIENTIFIC RKSEARCH TO STATE. 27

SO bad as was once believed. He has demonstrated that there are certain
niicioorganisnis growing on the roots of certain plants, and that by the
combined action of the germ and the i)lant free nitrogen may be taken
from the air and utilized in building up plant tissue or in other words,
that it may be changed from the free to the combined form, and when
thus changed it may subsequently be used for food by either plants or
animals. This is what is known as the T)rocess or function of lixing
nitrogen, and it depends upon the combined action between certain germs
and leguminous plants. About twenty years ago it was quite conclu-
sively shown that peas, beans, and otlier legumes when grown in a poil
wholly free from nitrogen were capable of constructing nitrogenous com-
pounds and building up nitrogenous plant tissue, while the only source
of the nilrogcn thus utilized was that existing free in the atmosythcre.
At first this view was believed to be founded upon faulty observations,
but thorough experimentation has shown that the statement made above
is a fact. Then men set about to ascertain the conditions under which
plants, and especially leguminous plants are able to utilize the free
nitrogf^n of the atmosphere. These experiments were conducted by skilled
botanists in various parts of the world, and now after twenty years of
these labors it can be positively stated «that the manner in whirli legumi-
nous plants convert nitrogen into compounds has been discovered. If
the roots of a leguminous plant be studied they will be found to be dotted
with tiny nodules, which are known to the botanist as tubercles but
which, however, have no relation to the pathological conditions known
to the medical man under the same name. These tubercles or swellings
on the roots of the pea vine vary markedly in size. They may be so small
that they are bnrely discernible to the naked eye, and in some instnnces
they have a diameter of one-sixth of an inch or more. Of course the
existence of these nodules on the roots of leguminous plants had been
long known, but their function was not understood. It w.as generally
believed that their presence indicated a diseased condition, but it was
found that the plants on the roots of which they developed most abun-
dantly thrived most vigorously. I shall not attempt before this audience,
in which there are manv who know more about this subject than T do. to
go into detail concerning the relation of these tubercles to the fixation
of nitrogen by leguminous plants. Suffice it to say that exoerimentation
has shown that these nodules do not form on the roots of plant*^ grown in
sterilized soils, and that under the same conditions such plants take up
no nitrogen from the atmosrdiei^e. Next it was found that if legumin(ms
seeds were planted in sterilized soil, devoid of nitrogenous food, and were
watered with an infusion of sterilized soil, they manifested two character-
istic and pecul'ar stages of growth.- At first the peas sprouted readily
and grew vigorously for a very short time, when growth ceased. Tliis
j)eriod, which the botanist now designates as the stage of nitrogen hun-
ger, was reached as soon as the plant had used up all the combined nitro-
gen in the seed. If at this stage some of the plants were watered only
with sterilized earth infusions they did not recover, but continued to
wn«!te away an^l finally died, while those watered with non-sterilized soil
infusions soon began to take on a vigorous growth, eventually develo])ed
into well nourished plants, and produced an abundant yield. Upon ex-
amininir the roots of these two sets of plants it was found that those
watered with sterilized soil infusions showed no tubercles or nodules,

28 MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

while those watered with non-sterilized soil infusions carried these tiiber-
clep. These experiments quite naturally suggested that the tubercles were
formed by the agency of bacteria, and microscopic and cultural studies
confirmed this supposition. Soon the characteristic microorganisms in
these tubercles were obtained in artificial culture media and their causal
relation to the tubercles was proved by direct inoculation experiments.
Moreover peas were planted in sterilized soils and watered with these cul-
tures. When this was done it was found that tubercles formed abun-
dantly on the roots of the plants, which, on account of their ability to fix
nitrogen, grew vigorously and produced abundant crops. Additional
studies have shown that these bacteria, which are quite widely distrib-
uted in the soil, pass into the roots, forming the swelling or tubercle at
the place of entiance, penetrate the woody tissue in the form of delicate
filaments, and produce a mucilaginous substance which permeates the
tissues of the plant.. There has been some discussion as to whether it is
the bacteria or the plant which fixes the nitrogen, but the only conclusion
which can b? justified by the experiments that have already been made is
that both of tliese organisms are essential, both the germ and the legumi-
nous plant aie necessary, and they must act together in order to take
free nitrogen from the air and combine it into the tissues of the plant.
1 should state that some experiments indicate that there is a certain
amount of nitrogen fixation in the green parts of many plants, but this
is so very small compared with the large quantities fixed by the combined
action of leguminous plants and the bacteria that it cannot be considered
to be of any special importance. In this way it will be seen that there is
an association between the plant and the microorganism which is mutu-
ally beneficial to the two, and which enables the tv/o working together to
take free nitrogen from the atmosphere and build it up into tissue
which can be subsequently utilized for feeding other plant? and even
nourishing animals as well. Some experiments indicate that there are
different species of the tubercle organism, and that it is necessary in order
to get the best results to bring together the special legume and the special
tubercle bacillus which best work together.

It will be seen from this that bacteriology has been a benefit to the
world not only by decreasing sickness and lessening the death rate, but
also by pointing out to the farmer a way by which he can utilize the in-
exhaustible stores of free nitrcgen in the atmns])here as a fertilizer for
his soil. ]\Inrpover it has placed within the hands of man the means by
which under intelligent direction the abundance and vigor of life in this
world can be increased. It shows us how it may be possible for the arid
sandy plain to be converted into a rich field, and how waste ])laces may
be fertilized and made to yield abundant food for plant and animal.
Just ( ne bundled years ago Sir Humphrey Davy in a popular lecture
before the Royal Institution used the following words: "The j)rogression
of p' ysical science is much more connected with your prosperity than is
usually imngine.i. You owe to experimental philosophy some of the most
important and peculiar of your advantages. It is not by foreign con-
quests chiefly that you are to become great, but by a conquest of nature
in your own country. It is not so much by colonization that you have
attained your prominence or Avenlth, but by the cultivation of the riches
of your own so'l. Why at this moment are you able to sunply the world
with a thousand articles of iron and steel necessary for the purposes of

VAUGHAN ON VALUE OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH TO STATE. 29

life? It is by arts derived from chemistry and mechanics and founded
purely upon experiments. Why is the steam engine now carrying on
operations which formerly employed in painful and humiliating labor
thousands of our robust peasantry, who are now more nobly or more use-
fully serving their country either with the sword or with the plow? It
was in consequence of experiments upon the nature of heat, and pure
physical investigation. In every part of the world manufactures mnde
from the mere clay and pebbles of your soil may be found, and to what is
this owing? To chemical arts and experiments. You have excelled all
other people in the products of industry.' but why? Because you have
nseisted industry by science. Do not regard as indifferent what is your
true and greatest glory. Except in thes-e res])ects and in the light of a
pure system of faith, in what are you superior to Athens or to Rome?
Do you carry away from them the palm in literature and the fine arts?
Do you not rather glory, and justly too, in being in these respects their
imitators? Is it not demonstrated by the nature of your system of pub-
lic education and by your popular amusements? In what then are you
their superiors? In everything connected with physical science, with
the experimental arts. These are your characteristics. Do not neglect
them. You have a Newton who is the glory not only of your own country,
but of the human race. You have a Bacon whose precepts may still be
attended to with advantage. Shall Englishmen slumber in that path
which these great men have opened, and be overtaken by their neighbors?
Say rather that all assistance shall be given to their efforts; that they
shall be attended to. encouraged and sunported," These words sj)oken
by one of the greatest philosophers of England might with scarcely a
change in a sentence be addressed to the American people today. If
this nation has become a world ])Ower it owes its position to tlie fact
that by scientific means it has developed its internal resources, and if the
time ever comes when it shall discourage science it will lose the proud
position which it now occupies.

I must be permitted to take the time to bring before you one or two
additional examples of the great benefit that the world has derived from
scientific discoveries which at the time they were made were regarded as
being possessed of but little importance. The question. What is the use
of scientific work? is an old one. Benjamin Franklin answered this ques-
tion in his characteristic way by asking what is the use of a baby. What
can it do? Let it grow into something and then see. It has been fre-
quently said that the life of Michael Farady was that of a pure scientist.
He loved science for its own sake, and he seemed to care but little about
anv practical uses that might be made of his discoveries, yet as Tyndall,
Gladstone and others have shown, a great many of Farady's discoveries
have been applied to practical uses with great benefit to mankind. He
discovered benzene, which L'-^.ter, as we all know, became the kernel of
organic chemistry. This was converted, as Gladstone has pointed out,
into nitrobenzol. a gift to the confectioner and the perfumer. Through
the labors of Hofmann all of the anilin dyes with their brilliant colors
on fibres of all kinds have resulted from Farady's discovery of benzene.
Sir William Thompson utilized the new property of matter discovered
by Farady, and designated by him as "^specific inductive capncity," in
determining the dimensions of submarine cables, and it is said that when
Cyrus Field was projecting the Atlantic cable he went to Farady, talked

30 MICHIGAN ACADEMY OP SCIENCE.

the mntter ovpr with him. sponred the interest of the philosopher, af=-ked
hiui some (piestions. nnd F;ir:id.v recpiested that some iiiue be given him
ill (ir;.'er tliat lie might coriectlv answer tlieni. AVhen Field returned
Faradv said to him: "It can be done, but you will not get an instantane-
ous message." "How long will it take," ask'td Mr, Field. "I'erhaps a
second," responded Mr. Fara.dy. The magneto electric light, which was
one of Farady's discoveries, has for years been utilized in lighthouses
and has been des-^ignated as "Sentinels of peaceful progress."

I have often wondered what must have been P'arady's feelings when
as a member of the commttee appointed by the lighthouse board of
England he was called upon to pass judgment ujion the utility of liis own
discovery, which had been adapted to practical ends by Holmes. IHs
report sliows that he still carried with him the syiirit of scientific caution
which characterized all his works. 1 must be permitted to make the fol-
lowing quotation, which shows his cautious s])irit most admirably. He
states: "The light is so intense, so abuntlant, so concentrated and focal,
so free from under-shadows (caused in the common lamj) by the burner),
so free from flickering that one cannot but desire it should succeed; but
it would recpiiie very careful progressive introduction. — men with pe<*u-
liar knowie ge and skill to attend it, and the means of instantaneously
substituting one lamp for another in case of accident. The common lamp
is so simple both in principle and practice that its linbility to failure is
very small. There is no doubt that the magneto electric lamj) involves a
great number of circumstances tending to make its aT)])lication more re-
fined and delicj'te; but I would feign hone that none of these would
prove a barrier to its introduction. Nevertheless it must pass into prac-
tice only through the ordeal of a full searching and prolonged trial.".

We are all aware of the great benefit which the discovery of vaccination
for smallpox by Edward Jenner has been to the world, but possibly few
of us krow that nearly twenty-five yeais of most j);)tient and careful in-
vestigation preceded this discovery. The researclies of Count Kumford
which led to the subsequent discovery of the mechanical ecjuivalent of
heat by Joule is another illustration of the great benefit that pure science
has been to the world. Dalton's law of definite and multi])le yirojiortions,
and Avogadro's st-temert that under the same conditions of heat and
pressure etjual volumes of all substances both simitle and combined in
the gaseous state eontain the same number of molecules, hnve made of
nioilern chemistry a science no less exact than that of mathematics; or,
in other words, the^^ have resulted in the application of mathematical
exnctne«s to the study of chemistry. 1 would not have you understand
from, the ^-fiitements that T hnve made that T would restrict scientific
investigation to the phvsical. chemical, and biological studies. As T have
already stated, scientific research may concern it'-'elf with any depart-
ment of human knowledge, and certainly some of the discoveries which
have been of great force in improving the condition of mankind lie out-
side of the jihyslcal and biological sciences. The comparative study of
the Arvan liTT>-na"'es, inaugurated by Hott in ISIH. has £>-ivpn us freater
knowledge of th'^ develonment of the most important branch of the human
family than we could h-^ve obtained in any other wav. T,ikewi«e the
comparative method of invest'eatinn' socinl ru«'toris nnd humnn institn-
tions has shown us how the different groups of mankind in various part»

VAUGHAN ON VALUE OF SCIENTIFIC KKSKARCH TO STATE. 31

of the world have slowly developed intellectually and morally as well as
physically.

As 1 have already stated, we must not be impatient because scientific
discoveries do not always lend themselves to immediate use. It may be
said that these discoveries are j^ems due; from the earth by one generation,
cut and })olished by Ihe rext, and used to adorn the third. l)uriii<»- the
past hundred years the world hns just begun to apply the most brilliant
au(i most important scientific discoveries.

I want to say a few words concerning the conditions which are favor-
able to the advancement of scientific work, and first I may be permitted
to say just a few things concerning the scientific investigator himself.
It is sometimes stated that the research man is born, not made. This is
of course true, both literally and metaphorically, but by imj)lication it
means too much. We know not how many men who might have nuide
gieat discover es in science have been born but failed to benefit the world
on account < f hick of onportunities. The existence of the proper indi-
vidual is only cue of the factors in the production of a scientist. He must
h've the ojtjtoTtunity, and without it he is practically hel])less, or at least
the scope of his work is limited, and his strength is fettered. Is it at all
likely that the brilliant but somewhat erratic young Welchman who after-
w;)i-us <ievoio]ietl into Sir Humphrey Davy would have made the discov-
eries that he did had it not been that the Royal Institution offered him
the facilities. It is not likely that the unassuming, modest Michael
Fara'^y, the son of a blacksmith, and himself an apprentice of
a bonkhiu'Ter, would have made the wonderful discoveries that he did
both in physics and in chemistry had it not been that the opportunities
for ('oing so were supy)lied him by the same institution. Is it not true
that the sp-rt which led to the formation of the Royal Institution in the
last year of th? eighteenth century was necessary for the development of
such men as Davy, Farady, Dulton, Darwin. Tyndall. Huxley, and Spen-
cer. No man can become a skilled workman unless he has the tools to
work with. No man. however great his genius, can do scientific work
unless he has time and opportunity. A scientific man must have the
wic rewithal to su])iK)rt life. He must be free from the necessity of
looking for the practical ends. On this point please permit me to quote
again from Sir Humphrey Davy. He states: "Without facilities for pur-
suing his object, the gie'test genius in experimental research may live
an 1 die useless and unknown. Talents of this kind cannot like talents
for lit'ratcre and the fine arts call forth attention and respect. They
can neither give popular'ty to the names of patrons nor ornament their
lionscs. They are linr'ted in the-r effects, which are directed toward the
immutable interests of society. They cannot be made subservient to fash-
ion or cay)rCe; they must forever be attached to truth and belong to
natu'e. If we merely consider instruction in physical science, this even
re(]ulres an exuensive aT)paratus to be efficient: for without proper ocular
demonstratiors, all lectures must be unavailing, — things rather than
woids should be made the objects of study. A certain knowledge of the
beings and substances surrounding us must be felt as a want by every
cultivated mind. It is a want wh'ch no activity of thought, no books, no
course of reading or conversntion can supply. * * * To attempt with
insufficient means to support philosophy is merely to humiliate her and

32 • MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

render her an object of derision. Those who establish foundations for
teaching the sciences ought at least to understand their dignity. To con-
nect pecuniary speculation or commercial advantages with schemes for
promoting the progress of knowledge is to take crops without em])loying
manure; is to create sterility and destroy improvement. A scientific in-
stitution ought no more to be made an object of j)rofit than a hosj)itaI or
a charitable establishment. Intellectual wants are at least as worthy of
support as corporeal wants, and they ought to be provided for with
the same feeling of nobleness and liberality. The language expected by
the members of a scientific body from the directors ought not to be: 'We
have increased your proi)erty. We have raised the value of your shares.'
It ought rather to be: 'We have endeavored to apply your funds to use-
ful purposes, to promote the diffusion of science, to encourage discovery,
and to exalt the scientific glory of your country.'"

As I have already stated, we are fortunate in living in an age which
at least partially appreciates and gives some support, although generally
inadequate, to scientific research. The Royal Institution of England,
founded by the learned and eccentric American, Benjamin Thompson, or
Count Rumford, has for the last hundred years been a great factor in
the development of scientific knowledge. It is probably true that there
is no other single place in the world where so many great scientific dis-
coveries have had their birth as in the old buildings on Albernuirle street.
Tlie Pasteur Institute in Paris, now richly endowed and magnificently
equipped, furnishes opportunities unsurpassed anywhere for bacteriolog-
ical research. Already the contributions made through these institutions
to the ]»rogress of science and the betterment of the human race hav*e
more than justified the expenditures that have been made in carrying on
the work. Indeed, the researches of Roux and Metschnikoff, to say noth-
ing of those of many of their assistants, have given us information by
means of which many lives have been s-ived and the domain of human
knowledge has been greatly extended. We are still accustomed to look
ui)on Russia as a half civilized country, but the appreciation that this
gr at vigorous nation is showing for scientific research is bound to mnke
Slavonic civilization a powerful competitor in the future history of the
world with Anglo-Saxon culture. The laborntories of experimental medi-
cine grouped together on one of the islnnds of the Neva near St. Peters-
burg furnish probably the most ideal place for scientific research now
existing in the world. The government hns erected caiincious laborntnries,
has equipped them with the latest and most improved instruments of pre-
cision, and has called to these laboratories its most eminent scientific
men. and has imposed upon them no other tafk than to search for truth
in the biological sciences. As we all know, scientific research hns been
most warmly nurtured for the last fifty years in Germany, and this has
done more for the solidification and permanence of the German EmT>ire
thnn has been accom]dished by political means. Fler numerous univer-
sities are liberally su])])orted by the state, abundantly su])plied with
facilities, and her best men are called to occupy her professorial posi-
tions. Not only has this been done, but the Kingdom of Prussia nlone
has built at Charlottenberg at a cost of twenty-one millions of marks a
great T)olytechnicum in whir-h eminent physicists and' chemists devote
their lives to the pursuit of knowledge. In emulation of Paris. Berlin
has the new Institute, turned over to Koch for his researches along medi-

VAUGHAN ON VALUE OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH TO STATE. 33

cal linos, and the Imperial Government has established at Frankfort a
laboratory of research which is under the direction of Ehrlich, who is
probably the most fitted man in physioloijical work now living;. There
are indications that some of the walthy men in onr own country are
bejrinning to appreciate the <rreat value of scientific research. The recent
establishment of the Rockefeller Institute, nnd the still more recent gift
of Mr. Carnegie for research work, are illustrations along this line. The
United States government has sustained certain lines of research which
have been very creditable but it must be admitted that political influences
have had more to do with the establishment of the scientific bureaus at
Washington than love of science itself. While a great deal of valuable
work has been done in the bureau of animal industry, and in other de-
partments, notably at the Smithsonian, the object had in view in estab-
lishing and maintaining these laboratories has been more directly for the
purpose of securing votes than it has with any full appreciation of the
value of scientific discovery. However, I do not desire to pose as a critic
of my own country or as one who always sees things to admire abroad
and things to condemn at home, and I believe that the future for scientific
research in this country is as bright as that in any other part of the
world. If we are to continue to move ahead, this must be true. Even if
we have no higher aim than that of commercial supremacy, which this
nation seems to be fast acquiring, we must encourage scientific research.
There are many problems in applied science, the solution of which must
be demanded very soon. Some of these may be briefly mentioned. Our
dairy products are known to be inferior to those of certain other
countries, — notably Denmark. This is largely, if not altogether due to
the fact that in Denmark cream is always pasteurized and is then inocu-
lated with a culture of germs which have been found to give the best
flavor. This of course tells largely in butter making. The ripening of
cream is due to the growth of germs and every cubic centimeter of
ripened cream contains an average of about four hundred millions of
bacteria. At present in this country the kind of germs present depends
upon the accidental contaminations of the various barnyards in which
the milk is gathered, and of course no uniform result is obtained. In
• Denmark the law makes it obligatory upon every maker of butter to
pasteurize the cream by heating it to a temperature of 70°-72° and then
allowing to cool. This destroys all the germs present, and then the cream
is inoculated with cultures of those germs which have been found by
experience to be beneficial. The pasteurization of all milk which goes to
a creamery in Denmark has the advantage not only of securing for
Danish butter several cents a pound more in the English markets, but
also of destroying the tubercle bacillus, which may be present. Steril-
ization and subsequent inoculation with pure cultures gives a butter
which is uniformly good. It is true that in this country pure cultures,
known as starters, have been employed to some extent, but as a rule these
cultures are added to unsterilized cream. In other words, they are mixed
in with the germs tluit are already growing in the cream. After this, it
depends upon accident which will crowd the other out of existence. We
need a more thorough study of the bacteriology of cheese, be-
cause the flavor of this very valuable article of diet is largely dependent
upon the bacteria and molds present. There is also room for improve-
ment in many other food articles which we export. There is opportunity
for most excellent work to be done upon the blending of wheats in order
5

34 MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

to secure a Hour that will make the best bread. We have vast areas of
practically sterile lands which under the influence of scientific agri-
culture might be made to support a large population. The question of
the disposal of sewage is an important one. Ordinarily it is thrown
into rivers or other watercourses, and pollutes our streams, serves as a
means of spreading disease, and robs our soil of its most valuable con-
stituents. Some experiments have been made already upon a small scale
and seem to indicate that certain bacteria may be used for the purpose
of converting the organic matter in sewage and garbage into nitrates and
nitrites which might be again used in fertilizing the soil. A proper solu-
tion of this question will lead not only to the prevention of such water
borne diseases as typhoid fever, but must add greatly to the productive-
ness of our soil. We need improved methods of making artificial stone
and similar building material. We have great beds of marl, but at
present the demand for this material is somewhat limited, and I have no
doubt that the time will come when this substance will be put to uses
much more important than any in the past. There are many other prob-
lems awaiting solution but time will not permit me to discuss them.

TKANSACTIONS OF THE DETROIT OBSERVATORY
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN.

PART I.

DETERMINATION OF THE ABERRATION CONSTANT FROM

ZENITH DISTANCES OF POLARIS MEASURED WITH

THE WALKER MERIDIAN CIRCLE,

BY

ASAPH HALL, JR., DIRECTOR OF THE OBSERVATORY.

/. — Introduction.

The Detroit Observatory of the University of Michigan was built about
1854 throu,c;h the efforts of President Tappan, money for the purpose
being raised in Detroit. Mr. Henry N. Wallver of Detroit was es7»ecially
interested in tlie project and gave funds for the purchase of the meridian
circle.

The observatory building is of the usual old-fashioned type, a central
part, on the top of which is the dome for the equatorial, and east and west
wings, the meridian circle being in the east wing and the library in the
west. All the walls are of heavy masonry, so that the temperature in the
observing rooms changes slowly.

In addition to the Walker meridian circle the observatory was equipped
at first with a 12%-inch equatorial constructed by Fitz, and a clock by
Tiede of Cerlin. The equatorial has the old German style of mounting
with a wooden tube. As far as I can find out the driving clock was never
of any use. Also, it is rather difficult to manage the illumination of the
micrometer, so that with it few systematic observations were made. The
object glass is a fair one. With this instrument Professor Watson dis-
covered twenty-one asteroids. A number of these were observed but a
few times and are now lost. The difficulty in using the micrometer is
probably the reason for the small number of observations of them made
at Ann Arbor.

Observations of comets and asteroids were also made with this instru-
ment by Dr. Briinnow, Professor Watson and Messrs. Schaeberle, Camp-
bell, Hussey, and Townley. I believe that several comets were discovered
with it.

The Tiede Clock has now an irregular rate.

About 1880 a small observatory was erected near the large building,
designed especially for practice work. In it were placed a 6-inch equa-
torial with a Clark glass, and mounting by Fauth, and a 3-inch Fauth
meridian transit.

The object glass of the equatorial is good, wilh the sharp definition
characteristic of the Clark glasses. The mounting is fair, though the
driving clock, having a Foucault governor, is too weak.

With this equatorial observations of comets and asteroids have been
made by Messrs. Schaeberle, Campbell, Hussey, and Townley.

The object glass of the meridian transit is poor. AUrsae Minoris cannot
be seen with a bright field. The pivots rest on wide and flat agate bear-
ings, an arrangement which is wrong mechanically, and may account for
the existence of two azimuths.

The observations made at Ann Arbor have been i)ublished in the various
astronomical journals and in the American Journal of Science. In the
way of records there is very little.

The observatory building is on a hill south of the Huron River, on clay

38 MICHKi \N ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

soil. Along the river ruus the Michigan (Jentral Railroad and the passing
of the trains soiiieiinies iii;ikes ii difficult to determine nadirs. The pre-
vailing winds are wesicrly. The best seeing is nsualh' in the spring and
summer, though there is tine weather also in October, December, and
Januaiy. There is considerable dam]>uess.

The instruments of this observatory were in bad condition when they
came into my hands. .It was neeessai-y to take apart and clean the object
glasses. Tackles were rigged in the slits of the domes, and the tubes,
axes, and bearings of the axes were taken down, and the accumulations
of oil and grease remo\-ed.

2. — Latitude and Lovf/itud(? of the Detroit Observatory.

As to the latitude no record of an accurate determination can be found.
From the discussion which follows of observations of Polaris the latitude
can for the present be assumed

+4.2° 16' 48.8".

The value +42 IG' 4S.(r as printed in the ephemerides was, I think, an
approximate determination. -42° 16' 48", the .0 being finally added by
accident.

The best deterniinrition of longitude is probably that found by connect-
ing with Hamilton ('ollege, Clinton, New York. Dr. Briinnow observed at
Ann Arbor and Dr. Peters at Clinton. The difference of longitude was
found to be

33m 17.69s.

Hamilton College had been previously determined with respect to Cam-
bridge, and was found to be west of Cambridge

17m 6.48s.

Thus the Detroit Observatorv is w^est of Cambridge

50m 24.21s.

!See Briinnow's Astronomical Notices, numbers 15 and ;^7.

Also, Ann Arbor was twice connected with Detroit, and Detroit was
connected directly with Cambridge. See pp. 716, 717, 861) of rrufcssional
Papers, Corps of Engineers, U. S. A., No. 2-'f, also the Spherical Astronomy
of Briinnow, one of the examples under the Method of Least Squares.
From these determinations Detroit is west of Cambridge.

47m 41.17s.

and Ann Arbor is west of Detroit

2m 43.10s.

In the second exchange of longitude signals between Ann Arbor and
Detroit apparently there was no telegraph line running to this observa-
tory. The signals from Ann Arbor seem to have been sent from a chro-
nometer which was carried to the telegraph office.

3. — The Walker Meridian Circle.

An investigation of the division errors of the fine circle of this instru-
ment was published in Briinnow's Astronomical Notices. I cannot find
that anything else has been printed regarding it.

HALL, ABERRATION CONSTANT. 39

In the Notices are given, also, the determinations of the places of a
number of comparison stars for asteroids and comets. Sev'cral of the
older graduates have told me that Briinnow made with this meridian
circle an elaborate series of observations of the Bradley stars, the records
of which he took to Europe for reduction, by permission of the fniversity
authorities. I cannot find out anything regarding such observations.

Professor Watson, after taking charge of the observatory, seems to have
been interested in the construction of ecliptic charts and the discovery of
minor }»Ianets, and not to have made any regular use of the meridian
circle. It w^as employed by Professor Schaeberle, however, for the observa-
tion of latilude stars, Struve double stars, and planets. See reporl of
Professor Harrington to the Regents, 1881. A list of 155 stars ol3served
by Professor Schaeberle was printed in the ''Publications of the Wash-
burn Observatory." They were reduced, it is stated, differentially, but
none of the constants of reduction are given.

After some experience at. the Naval Observatory under Professor East-
man, I became interested in meridian circle work, and on coming to this
place resolved to make such observations. A new micrometer was pur-
chased from the Repsolds, a chronograph from Saegmiiller, and a clock
from Howard. The object glass was taken to the Clarks' shop and a
spring was put in the cell to act against the glass. The instrument was
taken to pieces and carefully cleaned. Observations were begun of a list
of Bradley stars, including a number to be used for latitude at the George-
town College Observatory.

On looking up the latitude of this place no record could be found of an
accurate determination, so that observations were made of Polaris, both
for the purpose of determining latitude and with the idea of obtaining the
amount of latitude variation at Ann Arbor. Also, an examination was
begun of the division errors of the fine circle, to test the permanency of
the values given by Dr. Briinnow. The reduction of the nadirs was kept
up, and they seemed to show that the instrument was steady and the
work good. During term time of the University it was necessary to
neglect the other reductions. As soon as they could be brought up the
work was shown to be not first rate. The reduction of the observations
of the Bradley stars are pretty well completed. They can be used, I think,
if they are made strictly differential.

On looking the instrument over again the following trouble was found
which had probably existed since it was first mounted. To support our
meridian circle two brass cones with lugs attached are let into the stone
piers, and to the cones are screwed heavy brass discs. The discs support
the wye blocks which carry the pivots, and to the discs, also, are clam])('d
the microscope arms. The cones were found to be loose in their jtacking.
This packing was what seemed to be mortar mixed with brick dust, the
brick dust being added, I suppose, to make the mixture hydraulic. See
the older hand books of engineering under cements. The packing when
removed was a fine, dry dust.

I attempted to mount the cones in the piers first with lead and then
with plaster of Paris. Finally Portland cement was used and with it
they seem steady. We are under obligations to Mr. Fecker, superintend-
ent of Warner and Swasey's instrument department, and to Messrs,
Warner and Swasey for the remounting of the instrument. Mr. Fecker
called my attention to the fact that the object glass cell fitted loosely in

40 MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

the telescope tube, so that its weight came entirely on the three collima-
ting screws. A new cell was made, therefore, with a bell flange, fitting
tightly in the tube and having a better spring to work against the object
glass. I have wondered whether the curious flexures shown by some
meridian circles might not be produced in this way, by the bending of the
collinating screws on account of the object glass cell resting on them.

After the instrument was remounted it was necessary to take up some
work that should test it. Also, the reductions could not be too heavy, for
it would not do to allow them to fall behind. Finally it was decided to
begin again observations of zenith distances of Polaris with the idea of
determining the aberration constant, since a number of the values found
according to the method of Kiistner differed considerablv.

'&

Jf. — Description of Meridian Circle.

This instrument was constructed by Pistor and Martins in 1854. It is
of brass with steel pivots. It is unsymmetrical with respect to the cube,
the cone carrying the object glass being 4 feet \Y2 inches long, while the
length of the eye end cone is 3 feet and % inches. The total focal length
is approximately 8 feet 3i^ inches. A lead ring is placed inside the tube,
near the micrometer, to balance the greater weight of the object glass end.
The length of the axis is 3 feet 5% inches. The diameter of the objective'
is 6.3 inches. The object glass and eye ends of the telescope cannot be
interchanged.

The instrument is mounted between sandstone piers as described in Art.
3. The piers are not covered with wood or felt. The substructure is brick.

The dimensions of the observing room are. north and south. 2(5 feet 3
inches; east and west, 17 feet 8% inches; height, 13 feet 31^ inches; width
of opening, 2 feet 6% inches. The room is too small. There is hardly
sufficient space for reflected observations, and there is no proper arrange-
ment for ventilation so that the tem]ierature inside shall follow quickly
the changes of the outside air. Moreover, being built on as a wing to the
main building, the heating and cooling of this might produce refractions
different from those of the tables.

5.— The Ohject Glass.

This is rather poor, contafning tree-like formations. The rays of light
are not brought sharply to one focus. Still the images are pretty fair,
and round all the way across the field.

I). — The Micro meter.

The micrometer has a righl ascension screw, willi the Repsold device
for automatic registration of transits. The value of one revolution is ap-
proximately 3.640s. There is no zenith distance screw, and I may have
made a mistake in not having it. Uut I had become suspicious of some
of the complicated arrangements at the eye-ends of the large meridian
circles, and determined to make the zenith distance pointings with the
tangent screw of the telescope.

WWh this micrometer can be used only a bright field. The light is
thrown down the axis of the instrument, and reflected by a large mirror in
the cube, the mirror being pierced in the center by a circular opening in
order to let through the cone of rays from the object glass. The amount

HALL, ABERRATION CONSTANT.

41

of light falling on the mirror is regulated by opening or closing slats
placed in the axis of the telescope.

As the Repsolds had only the old Pistor and Martins micrometer to
work from they declined to attempt any arrangement for lighting the
wires, for fear, I suppose, of producing an unsymmetrical illumination.

For all observations the same eye-piece has been used, magnifying 160
times. This is about as high a power as it is possible to employ over the
nadir basin. A number of attempts were made to use higher powers, but
the nadir could not be obtained with them except when the air was quite
steadv.

l.—TJiG Pivots.

The pivots are approximately 1.819 inches in diameter. They must have
been very carefully made. Professor Schaeberle cleaned them, T under-
stand, with graphite and oil before beginning work with this instrument.
They were polished afterwards, also, by Professor Asaph Hall, in 1894,
with fine pumice stone and watch oil. The rust which had formed on
them had made etchings apparently, but had not injured their form. I
think they are as round now as when they were made.

It was not possible to test the pivot inequalities with the hanging
level, since the wye blocks are so large that the level wyes cannot be placed
over the bearings of the pivots. To examine the pivots, therefore, I had
the observatory purchase from Saegmtiller a spherometer caliper. A de-
scription of this is given in Doolittle's Practical Astronomy. Though
exceedingly delicate measures can be made with it the results are not
very definite, as it is now constructed, for the upper and lower bearings
are not in the same vertical plane. It merely shows in a general way
whether or not the pivots are good.

Before taking the measures the two telescope ends and the circles were
removed from the cube, and it was placed on a wooden support like that
of the reversing carriage. Settings of the caliper were made on those
parts of the pivots on which the wyes bear, and on which the level wyes
are usually placed. Eight positions of the cube were taken : eye-end up
and down ; edge of cube near 1854 in vertical, up and down ; side inscribed
Berlin, horizontal, two positions; edge near Pistor and Martins, in verti-
cal, up and down. These positions were 90° apart.

Twenty settings of the caliper were made in each position. From i/o inch
and 14 i^ch steel blocks furnished by Brown and Sharp, one revolution
of the spherometer screw was found to be

0.00974754 in.

From the settings on the pivots we have the following results :

BEARINGS ON Y'S.

Fine
circle end.

Coarse
circle end.

Eye-end '

0.3823r
0.3938
0.4214
0.4298

3718r

Edge 1854

3818

Side Berlin

3847

Edge Pistor and Martins

0.4231

Means

0.4068r

0.3904r

42

MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCh;.

Tims we find a shape slightly elliptical. One half the ditference of the
means is 0.0082r, or 0.000082 in. Since the length of the axis of the me-
ridian circle is 41% inches, this would produce an inequality of 0.4()r)r''
or 0.0270s, the coarse circle end being the bigger.

BEARINGS OF LEVEL.

Eye-end

Edge laoi

Side Berlin

Edge Pistor and Martins

Means

0.3706r
0.3698
0.3fi98
3625

0.3682r

0.36S8r
0.3524
0.3714
0.3634

0.3632r

One half the difference of the means is in this ease 0,002.5r, or 0.000025
in., producing an inequality of 0.1235'' or 0.0082s.
The weight on each pivot is approximately 34 lbs.

8.— The Circles.

There are two circles, one divided to 2' and one to 10'. Each is read by
four microscopes to 0.1". Both circles were cleaned by me with fine
whiting in 1893. Evidently both had been cleaned a number of times be-
fore, but the lines on the coarse circle are in better condition than those
on the fine circle. On the fine circle they are faint in several places. As
originally cut the lines must have been rather fine and delicate. The
more modern method of making them heavy is better, and the heavy marks
can be pointed on just as accurately, as far as I can see.

The circles are approximately STi'o inches in diameter. Each is sup-
ported by ten ribs running from the central hub. The ribs and the circles
themselves are rather light, so that there is some distortion by gravity.
The ribs are numbered I, II, .... through X. The fine circle is not
figured. I have considered the degree mark opposite X to be 0°, that
opposite I to be 36°, and so on. Opposite 72° I placed a scratch on the
silver band. Afterwards it was found that a cross had been placed oppo-
site 314°, which perhaps had been used on Polaris.

The fine circle was investigated by Dr. Briinnow to every fifth degree.
These results are reprinted here from the Astronomical Notices, both to
show the character of the circle, and for possible use with any old obser-
vations. The coarse circle is on the side of the clamp.

Examination of the Divisions of the Ann ArJjo)- Meridian Circle.

The Ann Arbor Meridian Circle was originally furnished with two
divided circles ; but as the one on the side of the clamp was found to be
slightly bent when it arrived at Ann Arbor, it is now used merely for set-
ting the instrument, and only the one on the opposite side of the axis
is used for reading the zenith distances. The four microscopes for read-
ing the circle on each side are fastened by strong arms to a solid circular
disc, which is firmly screwed to a solid brass piece let into the stone
pillar. This disc supports at the same time the Y-pieces, so that the
center of the axis coincides with its center. The edge of this disc is dove-

HALL, ABERRATION CONSTANT.

43

tailed; aiul wIhmi the tinve screws which clamp the arms of the micro-
sc()|)e are looseiunl, llu' anus can slide sniootliiy around the whole disc,
aud may be fastened with the }j;reatest ease and with perfect stability to
any point of the disc. IJy rc^ason, however, of the width of the part of the
arm which is clamped to the disc, the smallest distance within which any
two microscopes can be brought is about ;>0 .

With the microscopes in Iheir usual position, 1)0° distant from each
other, I determined first the error of the line 180°, taking that of the line
0° equal to zero; and by bisecting the two arcs betwe(Mi the line 0° and tlie
line of 180° corrected, 1 found the eri-ors of the lines 1)0° and 270°. Then
one microscope was placed at a distance of exactly 45° from the first; and
bv means of these two. and the other three microscopes at the respective
distances of 00°, 180° aud 270" from the first, I found the errors of the
lines 45°, 135°, 225° and 315°, by bisecling- arcs of 1)0" and 270° corrected
according to the former observations. These observations of the lines at
a distance of 45° were taken on eight different days, in temperatures rang-
ing from 20° to 4fi° Fahi-eiiheit. For each line, two observations were
made, one immediately after the other; and the errors given in the follow-
ing table are each deduced from the mean of two observations.

The errors of the lines distant 45° from each other, thus obtained on the
difterent davs mentioned, are as follows: —

1857.

45-^

90°

135°

180°

225°

270°

315°

Temp.

November 25

+3.15"
3.56
3.75
3.02
3.27
3.17
3.20
3.01
3.27
3.12

+5.90"
6.08
5.90
5.30
5.30
5.64
5.31
5.62
5.80
5.34

+7.35"
7.15
6.93
7.04
6.78
7.37
7.63
7.46
7.58
7.35

+7.P0'
7.72
7.57
7.70
6.99
7.95
7.62
7.70
7.77
7.47

+7.62"
8.16
8.17
7.90
7.52
8.72
8.32
7.88
8.60
8.19

+2.35"
2.41
2.33
2.55
2.13
2.65
2.66
2.63
2.56
2.37

-0.25"
0.25
0.53
0.50
1.04
0.30
0.09
0.04
0.09
0.42

19°

26

23

27 •.

28

28
36.5

29

45

December 2

45.2

2

43.8

3

32.7

3

4

32.7
31.5

MCilD

+3.25"

+5.62"

+7.26"

+7.61"

+8.11"

+2.46"

-0.35"

The differences in the errors of the same line, found on different days,
must have been caused by the different action of the temperature on
different parts of the circle.

The same observations were repeated in the same manner, but in posi-
tions of the circle 180° different from those in the former series ; and the
following results were obtained, each result being the mean of two obser-
vations : —

1858.

45°

90°

135°

180°

225°

270°

315°

Temp.

January 1

+3.59"
3.64
3.59
3.51
3.39
3.38
3 33
3.78
3.39
3.19

+5.55"
5.55
5.08
5.02
5.39
5.47
4.76
5.76
5.24
5.24

+7.49"
6.89
6.48
6.79
7.00
7.18
6.86
7.30
7.32
7.13

+7.43"
7.25
7.30
7.02
7.47
7.77
7.32
7.55
7.32
7.48

+7.34"
7.22
7^04
6.68
7.16
7.65
7.00
7.73
7.17
6.87

+ 2.15"
1.85
1.53
1.51
2.02
2 32
1.94
2.52
1.66
2.02

-0.73"
0.43
0.42
0.55
0.69
0.59
0.61
0.22
1.09
0.79

35°

1

2

35.2
33.3

2

35.2

4

41.7

4

44.5

5

38.5

5.!

39.0

6

35.2

6

36.0

Mean

+3.48"

+5.30"

+7.04"

+7.39"

+7.19"

+1.95"

-0.61"

44

MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

The mean errors of the seven lines, resulting from the two series of
observations, are therefore: —

Error..

45°

90°

135°

180°

225°

270°

+3.36"

-f5.46"

+ T.I5"

+7 50"

+7.65"

+2.20"

315°

-0.48'

In order to find the errors of the intermediate lines for intervals of 15°,
I placed two microscopes exactly 105° apart: by means of these positions
I divided arcs of 315° into three equal parts, beginning successively with
the lines 0°, 45°, 90°, etc., and applying always the corrections for the
seven principal lines found before. These observations were made on four
days in one position of the circle, and on four other days in positions
always 180° different. The same errors were found also by another series,
with two microscopes placed 75° apart, arcs of 225° being divided into
three equal parts: these observation ere likewise made on four days, and
repeated on four other days in positions of the circle which differed always
180° from those in the former series. The following tables show the re-
sults found for the different errors on the different days: —

MICROSCOPES 105° APART.

15°

30°

60°

75°

105°

120°

150°

165°

Temp.

December 12

14...

15....
January 7

-i-0.45"
0.42
0.17
0.62

+ 0.80"
0.94
0.94
1.24

+ 3.21 '
3 08
3.28
3.14

+5.45"
5.52
5.52
6.58

+6.57"
6.94
6.31
6.21

+6.50"
6.33
6.46
6.13

+6.97"
7.37
7.64
7.64

+8 21"
8.24

8.44
8.28

32.0°
41.5
43.7
^2.0

Mean

+0.41"

+0.98"

+3.18"

+5.77"

-f6.5r'

+6.35"

+7.40"

+8.29"

195°

210°

240°

255°

285°

300°

330°

345°

Temp.

December 12

14....
15....

January 7

+7.23"
7.36
7.43
6.93

+6.85"
7.38
6.81
6 31

+4.62"
4.72
4.92
5.02

+4.29"
4.49
4.52
4.52

+ 1.05"
1.01
1.01
1.31

+0.29"
0.46
0.69
0.19

—0.30"
+0.03
-0,37
+0.17

-1.51"
1.31
1.11
0.61

32.0=
41.5
43.7
32.0

Mean

+7.24"

+6.84"

+4.82"

+4.45"

+1.10"

+0.41"

-0.14"

-1.13"

CIRCLE 180° FROM ITS FIRST POSITIONS.

15°

30°

60°

75°

105°

120°

150°

165°

Temp.

December 17....
18....
19....
19....

+1.05"
1.15
1.42
1.85

+1.77"
1.50
2.20
2.14

+3.31"
3.88
3.34
3.72

+5.78"
6,28
6.52
6.52

+7.27"
7.64
6.84
6.84

+6.90"
7.40
7.03
7.60

+ 7.54"
7.41
7.41
7.54

+7.91"
8.. 54

7.5S
8.06

40,3°
38.5
31.0
30.3

Mean

+1.37"

+1.90"

+3.56"

+6.27"

+7.15"

+7.23"

+7.47"

+8.02"

HALL, ABERRATION CONSTANT.

45

195°

210°

240°

255°

285°

300°

330°

345°

Temp.

December 17

18....
19....
19....

+6.76"
6.86
6.56
6.49

+6.65"
6.78
6.68
6.28

+4.79"
4.49
4.26
4.42

+4.12"
3.75
3.95
3.72

+2.18"
1.65
1.65
1.91

+0.26"
0.06
0.56
0.33

+0.17"
—0.43
+ 0.63
+0.83

—1.08"
1.68
1.75
1.31

40.3°
38.5
31.0
30.3

Mean

+6.67"

+6.60"

+4.49"

+3.88"

+1.85"

+0.30"

+0.30"

-1.45"

MICROSCOPES 75° APART.

December 12

14....

15....
January 7

Mean

15°

+0.02"
0.56
0.72
0.91

+0.56"

30°

+1.45"
1.48
1.35
1.38

+1.41"

60°

+3.93"
4.27
4.10
4.27

+4.14"

75°

+6.28"
6.58
6.05
5.95

+6.21"

105°

6.97"
7.04
6.67
7.04

+6.93"

120°

+ 6.17"
6.24
5.74

5.80

+5.99"

150°

+7.07"
7.47
7.60
7.40

+7.38"

165°

+8.31"
7.68
8.18
7.81

+7.99"

Temp.

33.2°
44 >0
47.7
32.4

195°

210°

240°

255°

285°

300°

330°

345°

Temp.

December 12

14....
15....

January 7

+6.69"
6.92
6.82
6.56

+7.37"
7.20
7.67
7.27

+4.47"
4.60
4.90
5.07

+4.09"
4.19
4.65
4.52

+ 1..58"
1.65
1.78
2.08

-0.41"
-0.25
-0.01
+ 0.75

-1.33"
1.23
0.19
0.46

2.08"
2.02
1.85
1.42

33.2°
44.0
47.7
32.4

Mean

+6.75"

+7.38"

+4.76"

+4.36"

+1.77"

+0.02"

-0.80"

—1.84"

CIRCLE 180° FROM ITS FIRST POSITIONS.

15°

30°

60°

75°

105°

120°

1.50°

165°

Temp.

December 17

18....
19....
19....

+1.59"
1.69
1.76
1.52

+0.65"
1.28
0.95
0.68

+3.67"
3.83
4.50
4.30

+5.65"
5.38
5.12
5.45

+6.27"
7.04
6.57
6.34

+6.47"
5.87
5.94
6.17

+7.70"
7.47
7.63
7.70

+7.88"
8.11
7.88
8.05

40.8°
.38.3
29.9
30.3

Mean

+1.64"

+0.89"

+4.07"

+5.40"

+6.55"

+6.11"

+7.62"

+7.98"

195°

210°

240°

255°

285°

300°

330°

34.5°

Temp.

December 17

18....
19....
19....

+6.49"
6.29
5.92
6.19

+6.44"
6.37
6.54
6.34

+3.50"
. 3.77
3.90
3.83

+4.29"
4.. 52
4.12
4.12

+1.61"
2.08
1.71
1.61

+1.32"
1.72
1.75
1.59

+0.37"
0..5J
0.54
0.34

—1.02"

1.08
0.55
0.65

40.8°
38.3
29.9
30.3

Mean

+6.22"

+6.42"

+ 3.75"

+4.26"

+1.75"

+1.59"

+0.45"

-0.82"

46

MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

Taking the mean of the results obtained in the two opposite positions
of the circle, we find the following errors : —

15°

30°

60°

75°

105°

120°

150°

165°

Microscopes 105° apart. .
Microscopes 75° apart. . .

+0.89"
1.10

+1.44"
1.15

+3.37"
4.10

+6.02"
5.80

+6.83"
6.74 •

+ 6.79"
6.10

+7.43"
7.50

+8.15"
7.99

Mean

+1.00"

+ 1.30"

+3 73"

+5.91"

+6.78"

+ 6.45"

+7.46"

+8.07"

195°

210°

240°

255°

285°

fl.48"
1.76

300°

330°

345°

Microscopes 105° apart. .
Microscopes 75° apart. . .

+6.95"
8.49

+6.72"
6.90

+4.66"
4.26

+4.16"
4.31

--0.35"
0.81

+0^8"
-0.18

-1.29"
1.33

Mean

+6.77"

+6.81"

+4.46"

+4.23"

r-1.62"

+0.58"

—0.05"

-1.31"

The errors of the lines separated by 5° were determined similarly to
those for intervals of 15°, by placing the microscopes on four different
days at distances of 85°, 95°, 100° and 110° apart; and thus arcs of 255°,
285°, 300° and 330° were each divided into three ecpial parts. Tlie obser-
vations commenced successively with the lines 0°, 15°, 30^^. elc and the
corrections for the first and last lines of the arc were applied according
to the values given above. Thus the error of each line was found on dif-
ferent days by comparison with two different lines, so that the small un-
certainty remaining in the errors of the lines 15°, 30°, 45°, 60 \ 75°, etc.,
will have very little influence on the determination of the errors of the
lines 5°, 10°, 20°, 25°, 35°, 40°, 50°, 55°, etc. These observations were
likewise repeated on four days, with the circle at each time in a position
180° distant from the corresponding position in the former series.

The following table shows the result of all these observations : —

5°

10°

20°

25°

35°

40°

50°

55°

December '21

+0.96"
1.23
2.10
1.51
1.67
1.68
1.88
1.03

-0.38"

-0.45

+0.05

-0.66

0.35

0.29

0.31

0.13

+0.42"
0.52
0.35
0.47
1.07
0.32
1.18
1.02

+ 1.96"
1.14
1.(59
1..56
1.76
2.26
1.18
2.50

+2.70"
3.18
2.69
2.59
3.26
3.83
2.50
3.28

+1.77"
1.02
1.67
1.84
2.11
1.90
1.98
2.55

+2.60"
3.25
3.22
3.21
3.19
3.57
3.12
3.46

+4.06"

23

3.85

26

3.87

29

22

3.82
5.05

25

4.75

28

4.20

30

4.77

Mean

+ 1.51"

-0.31"

+0.67"

+1.76"

+3.00"

+1.86"

+3,20"

+4.31"

HALL, ABERRATION CONSTANT.

47

65°

70°

80°

85°

95°

100°

110°

115°

+4.51"
4.85
4.95
4.40
5.90
6.04
4.85
5.36

+3.57"
3.75
4.40
*4.33
4.53
4.90
5.07
5.20

+4.59"
5.05
5.23
5.09
5.22
4.68
5.75
5.15

+6.28'
5.91
6.70
6.47
6.46
6.65
6.64
6.39

+6.84"
6.67
6.03
6.62
6.72
6.92
6.81
6.93

}-4.61"
5.17
4.96
4.73
5.60
5.00
5.68
6.31

+5.63"
4.91
5.18
5.07
6.33
6.00
6.40
6.26

+6 51"

23

6.81

26

6.38

29

6.41

22

6.86

25

6.13

28

7.19

30

6.36

Mean

+ 5.11"

+4.47"

+5.10"

+6.44"

+6.69"

+5.26"

+5.72"

+6.58'

125°

130°

140°

145=

155°

160°

170°

175°

December

21

+6.37"
6.11
6.70
7.01
6.35
6.72
7.60
7.64

+7.76"
7.43
6.51
6.58
7.63
6.98
7.47
7.04

+7.26"
7.35
6.37
7 10
6.73
7.38
7.40
7.87

+6.48"
6.66
7.06
6.37
7.06
6.21
7.34
7.41

+8.75"
8.70
9.31
8.43
8.08
8.50
8.73
8.82

+7.87"
7.72
7.66
7.92
8.10
7.02
7.68
7.92

+8.04"
7.42
8.25
7.72
6.78
7.89
7.26
8.18

+ 8.30"

23

8.70

26

8.89

29

9.07

22

8.40

25

8.27

2S

8.61

30

8.21

Mean

+6.81"

+7.18"

+7.18"

+6.S2"

+8.66"

+7.73"

+7.69"

+8.56"

185°

190°

200°

205°

215°

220°

230°

235°

December 21

+7.97'
7.43
8.13
8.04
7.35
7.34
7.49
7.64

+8 28"
8.82
8.20
8.31
7.42
6.83
7.79
8.11

+7.82"
7.61
6.78
7.15
6.46
6.42
6.69
7.49

+7.25"
7.47
6.38
7.27
6.90
6.68
6.92
6.39

+7.82"
8.21
7.72
7.31
6.60
7.67
6.34
6.99

+6.05"
6.33
6.37
6.31
5.21
5.92
6.19
5.61

+6.41'
6.29
6.32
6.17
5.47
5.09
5.22
5.55

+7.25"

23

7.39

26

7.19

29

7.47

22

6.60

25

6.47

28

6.60

30

6.29

Mean

+7.67"

+7.97"

+7.05 ■

+6.91"

+7.33"

+6.00"

+5.81 '

+6.91'

245°

250°

260°

265°

275°

280°

290°

295°

December 21

+5.54"
5.64
5.09
4.48
5.11
4.13
4.41
4.98

+3.97'
3.82
3.03
3.86
3.59
3.05
2 86
2.93

+3.20"
3.45
3.56
3.31
2.79
3.04
2.68
2.67

+2.67"
2.90
2.95
2.44
1.13
1.92
2.29
1.20

+1.26"
2.03
1.33
1.64
1.02
0.46
0.63
1.09

+2.69"
1.80
2.08
1.58
2.30
1.91
1.37
1.70

+1.66"
1.88
1.09
1.55
1.02
1.47
1.04
1.14

+2.16"

23

1.97

26

1.64

29

2.03

22

1.32

25

1 36

28

1.37

30

1.49

Mean

+4.93"

+3.39"

43.09"

+2.19"

+1.18"

+ 1.93"

+1.36"

+1.67"

48

MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

305°

310°

320°

325°

335°

340°

350°

355°

December 21

+0.89"
1.02
0.67
1.67
1.01
0.45
0.37
0.56

+0.39'

+0.42

—0.19

-0.04

-0.48

+0.42

-0.39

—0.44

-0.3.5"

+0.03

—0.39

-0.43

+ 0.19

-0.93

—0.53

-1.09

—0.13"

—0.44

—0.13

—0.48

—0.95

+0.31

—1.32

-0.21

—1.24"

-0.42

+0.03

+0.19

—1.36

-1.28

—1.10

-1.10

—0.07"

-0.46

-0.01

—0.13

-0.80

-0.13

—1.07

-0.96

+0.55"

4-0.41

+0.61

+0..56

—0.01

—0.13

—0.39

—0.54

—1 67"

23

—1 98

26

—1 16

29

—1.42

22

—1 29

25

— 1.66

28

—2.52

30

—I 62

Mean

+0.83"

-0.04"

—0 44"

-0.42"

-0.78"

-0.49"

-0.13"

-1.C6"

To show more distinctly how these observations compare with each
other, I have taken the mean of the two observations made in the two
opposite positions of the circle. These mean erroi-s onght to be the same,
if the observations were correct, and if the temperature had no influence
on them. These means are given in the following table: —

Mean.

5°

10°

20°

25°

35°

40°

50°

+1.31"
1.46
1.99
1.27

-0.36"
0.37
0.13
0.39

+0.74"
0.42
0.76
0.74

+1.86"
1.70
1.43
2.03

+2.98"
3.51
2.59
2.94

+ 1.94 '
1.(6
1.82
2.20

+3.89"
3 41
3.17
3.34

+ 1.51'

-0.31"

+0.67"

+1.76"

+3.00"

+ 1.86"

+3.20"

4.55"
4.30
4.08
4.30

+1.31

Mean

65°

70°

80°

85°

95°

100°

110°

+5.20"
5.45
4.90

4.88

+4.0.5"
4.32
4.73
4.77

+ 4.90"
4.87
5.49
5.12

+ 6.37"
6.28
6.67
6.43

+6.78"
6.79
6.42
6.77

+5.10"
5.09
5.32
5.52

+5.98"
5.46
5.79
5.67

+5.11"

1

+4.47'

+5.10"

+ 6.44"

+6.69"

+5.26"

+5.72"

115°

+6.68
6.47
6.78
C.39

+6.58"

Mean.

125°

130°

140°

145°

155°

160°

170°

+6.36"
6.41
7.15
7.32

+7.69"
7.21
6.99
6.81

+7.00"
7.36
6.88
7.48

+6.77"
6.44
7.20
6.89

+8.41"
8.60
9.02
8.63

+7.98"

7.3;'

7.65
7.92

+7.40"
7.66
7.75
7.95

+6.81"

+7.18"

+7.18

+6.82

+8.66"

+7.73"

+7.69"

175°

+8.35"
8.48
8.75
8.64

+8.56"

HALL, ABERRATION CONSTANT.

49

185°

190°

200°

205°

215°

220°

230°

235°

+7.66"
7.39
7.81
7.84

+7.85"
7.82
7.99
8.21

+7.14"
7.02
6.78
7.32

+7.07"
7.08
6.65
6.83

+7.21"
7.94
7.03
7.15

+5.63"
6.13
6.28
5.96

+5.94"
5.69
5.77
5.86

+6.93"
6.93
6 89
6.88

Mean

+7.67"

+7.97"

+7.05"

+6.91"

+7.33"

+6.00"

+5.81"

+6.91"

245°

250°

260°

265°

275°

280°

2G0°

295°

+5.32"
4.89
4.76
4.73.

+3.78"
3.43
2.93
3.40

+3.00"
3.24
3.12
2.9&

+1.90"
2.41
2.62
1.82

+ 1.M"
1.25
0.9.S
1.36

+2.49"
1.86
1.72
1.64

+1.34"
1.68
1.05
1.35

+ 1.74"
1.66
l..=>0
1.76

Mean

+4.93"

+3.39'

+3.09"

+2.19"

+ 1.18"

+ 1.93"

+1.36"

+1.67'

305°

310°

320°

335°

335°

340°

350°

355°

+0.95"
0.73
0.52
1.11

—0.05'
+0.42
-0.29
-0.24

—0.08"
0.45
0.46
0.76

-0.54"
0.06
0.72
0.35

-1.30'
0.85
0.54
0.45

-0.43'
0.29
0.54
0.70

-fO.27"
0.14
0.11
0.01

-1.48'
1.82
1.84
1.5 J

Mean

+ 0.83"

-0.04"

—0.44"

-0.42"

—0.78"

-0.49"

+0.13"

—1.66"

The errors of the division for every
lows : —

fifth degree are therefore as

fol-

0'

5

10

15

20

25
30
35
40
45

50
55
60
65
70

0.00"

+1.51
—0.31
+ 1.00
+0.67

+ 1.76
+ 1.30
+3.00
+ 1.86
+3.36

+3.20
+4.31
+3.73
+5.11

+4.47

75°

80
85
90
95

100
105
110
115
120

125
130
135
140
145

+5.91"
5.10
6.44
5.46
6.69

5.26
6.78
5.72
6.58
6.45

6.81
7.18
7.15
7.18
6.82

150°

+7.46"

155

8.66

160

' 7.73

165

8.07

170

7.69

175

8.56

180

7.50

185

7.67

190

7.97

195

6.77

200

7.05

205

6.91

210

6.81

215

7.33

220

6.00

225'
230
235
240
245

250
255
260

265
270

275
280
285
290
295

+7.65'
5.81
6.91
4.46
4.93

3.39
4.23
3Tti9

2.19
2.20

1.18
1.93
1.62
1.36
1.67

300'
305
310
315
320

325

330
335
340
345

350
355

+0.58"
+0.83
-0 04
-0.48
-0.43

—0.42
-0 05
-0 78
-0.49
—1.31

40.13
—1.66

The errors thus found are not merely thos'e of the divisions, bnt include
also the errors owing to the eccentricity of the circle and to the deviation
of the pivots from a cylindricnl form. The eccentricity produces terms of
the form

a + b cos X + c sin x ;

and from the 72 errors given above, T find the error of the eccentricity,

+ 4.''044 — 3."835 cos x + l."o61 sin x,

or +4.''044— 4.141cos(x + 22°9').

7

50

MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SClKXCi

If the error of the eccentricity of the circle be calcuhited for every fifth
degree, and subtracted from the corresponding error in the table, the
errors of the division will be as follows: —

0°

— 0.21'

75°

+ 1.35"

150°

-0.69'

2Zr>°

+2.00"

300°

-0.19"

5

+1.15

80

+0.19

155

+0.48

230

+ 50

305

+0.26

10

-0.85

85

+1.18

160

-0.45

235

+ 1.95

310

-0.42

15

+0.26

90

-0.14

165

-0.08

240

- 0.15

315

—0.71

20

-0.30

95

+0.76

170

-0.40

245

+0.68

320

-0.53

25

+0.53

100

-0.99

175

+0.56

250

-n.50

•325

-0.42

30

-0.20

105

+0.21

180

-0.38

255

+0 70

330

+0.01

35

+ 1.20

110

-1.10

185

—0.06

2S0

- 0.08

335

-0.69

40

—0.25

115

-O.hO

190

+0.42

265

—0 63

310

-0.40

45

+0.92

120

-0.86

195

- 57

270

-0.28

345

— 1.25

50

+0.43

125

—0.71

200

-0.06

275

-0.97

350

40.13

55

+ 1.19

130

—0.52

205

+0.05

280

+0.09

355

— 1.76

60

+0.25

135

-0.71

210

+0.23

285

+0.08

65

+ 1.27

140

—0.80

'Mb

+ 1.04

290

-rO 09

70

+0.27

145

-1.26

220

+0.02

295

+0 66

It is evident that these errors have two regular periods ; one depending
on the double angle, the other having itself a period of ten degrees. From
the 72 errors, I find the following expression for these periodical errors
of the division : —

—0.603 cos (2x+74° 20')— 0."23 cos 3(Jx.

The first term shows that the circle has a small ellipticity; the latter
very probably arises from the manner in which the division was made.
The introduction of these two terms brings the sum of the squares of the
errors from 39.7 down to 22.9.

If we subtract these periodical errors from the errors of the preceding
table, we find at last that the errors of the lines with intervals of five
degress, considered as merely accidental, become as shown in the following
table : —

c

5
10
15

20

25
30
35
40
45

50
55
60
65
70

+0.18"

+0.98

-0.67

-0.12

-0.32

-0.04
—0.39
+0.48
—0.57
+0.11

+0.05
+0.36
—0.10
+0.49
0.00

75°

80

8.=;

90

95

100

105

110

115

120

125

130

135

140 ....:.
145

+0.69"

+0.07

+0.69

-().(i7

40.47

-0.71
+0.16
—0.62
—0.39
—0.21

—0.45

+0.25
-O.3.;
+0.03
—0 89

150
1.55
160
165
170

175
180
185
190
195

200
2<i5
210
215
220

+0.12'
+0.80
+0 28
4 0.12
+0.18

+0.59
+0.01
-0.23
+0.60
—0.95

-0.08
—0.52
+0.04
+0.32
—0.30

225°

+ 1.19"

300°

-^0.46"

230

4-0.13

305 ....

+0.52

235

+ 1.12

310

+0.3S

210

—0.50

315

— 0..3fi

245

—0.10

3^0

+0 30

250

-0.77

325

—0.05

255

-0.04

330

-0.82

260

-0.20

335

-^11 37

265

1 12

340

3:^

270

-0.21

315

1 .05

275

—1.26

350

4-0.71

280 ....

4-0.37

355

- i.r3

285

0.00

290

4 0.57

295

+0.77

The probable error of any line is equal to ± 0."38 ; and therefore the
probable error of the mean of four lines which are used in reading the
microscopes, is ± 0."19.

With regard to the numbering of the degrees as given by Dr. Bninnow,
he refers, I think, to zenith distances when the circle is in a particular
position on the axis. See Publications of the Duiisiiik Observatory, Part
IV. ]»;!tre 12, whore the division marks whose eiiois have hoe^^ determined
by Dr. IJn'nniow are taken in this way. S(m\ also, llie Abhandlungen of

HALL, ABERRATION CONSTAM'.

51

Bessel, edited hy Engelmanii, I'aiid II, s. 7(1. I made an cxaiiiinatiou of
the errors of several of the live (l(\i>;r(*(> mailcs, iakcii a<T'ordiTig to my
notation, and found results so differcnl fi-oni (liosc <!f !»i-. IJiiinnow that
I think thoy can onl.v be oxplaiiUMl a.s aliovr.

Discussions of the Pistor and Martins ciiclcs caii he lound also in the
Annals of the Leiden Observatory, the volumes of the Naval Observatory,
Washington, and in articles by I'rofessor Jioss, in (lonld's Astronomical
Journal. As I understand it. the divisions of these circles were probably
made by means of successive applications of dillerent standards. Thus
the 10° marks were first cut. Then these intervals were bisected. Then
the singles degrees were cut by starting from the 5° marks, and applying
successively a standa.rd degree, and so on. Thus, there w(uild be a cumu-
lative error arising from the error of the standard, to be combined with
the probable error of the placing of the standard in position. It would
hardly answer, therefore, in the case of these circles, to determine the
division errors of the 5° lines, and then interpolate between them. For
ordinary work the safest way might be to turn the circle freciuently on
the axis, and not a])j>ly any division errors at all. Both circles go on
tapering axes, and are pushed up by collars held by screws, so that the
circles can be revolved into any position.

Counting the circle divisions in the manner I have adopted, the follow-
ing lines have been used for Polaris and the nadir in the observations pub-
lished in this paper, the readings being those given under microscope I
when the clamp is east.

For the Nadir 71"=
For Polaris

32'— 34'.

Above pole 20i°

Reflected Ii8

(«'— 06'
00—02

Ut io w pole :J02° 36—38'

R- flecLt-u 120 28—30

Since the divisions used for the Polaris observations were not changed
during this series, the errors would not enter into the computation of the
aberration constant. But for the purpose of examining the latitude as
found from these observations a determination was made of the. special
marks according to the method described by Bessel in the Abhandlungen.
The mean of the divisions 0°, 90°, 180°, 270° is supposed to have no error.
The errors as determined are the means of the errors of the four marks
pointed on with the microscopes.

Position 1.

205° 04'

Position 2.

Position 1.

202° 36'

Position 2.

+0.17"
+0.32
10

-1.14'
—1.20

-1.17

-0.81"
-0.96

+0.32"

+0.44

+0.59

-0.88

+0.38

+0.24

-0.46'

—0.25"

Position 1.

118° 00

Position 2.

Position 1.

120° 28'

Position 2.

+0.54"

+0.30

+0.58

wt Vi

-0.39"
-0.41

-0.38"
+0.16

+0.60"
-0.64

+0.51

+0.06"

-0.40

Position 1.
+0.20"
+0.03
+0.03

0.11

+0.62

+0.26"

71° 32'

+0.09

+0.10"

Position 2.

+0.40'

+0.31

—0.39

+0.11

52

MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

In position 2 the microscopes are changed 180° from the first position.
Evidently the effect of gravity on the circle is considerable. The division
errors are to be added to the actual readings to produce the ideal.

As to the marks 205^^ Od'. 202° ;i8', eh-., the errors were found by com-
paring the spaces 205° 04'-06", etc., with the mean of a good many 2'
spaces on the circle, this mean being regarded as the true value of a 2'
space. For the required 2' spaces we have then the following values, it
being understood that 71° 32'-34' for instance, refers to the mean of the

four spaces 71° 32'-31'

161° 32'-34', 251° 32'-34', 341° 32'-34'.

Space 71° 32'-34'
Reduction to
mean 2' space.
—0.47"
—0.50
+0.01
-0.27
—0.07
—0 33
-0.03
—0 45
—0.51
—0.37

Space 118° 00-02'.
Reduction.

+0.01"

+0.16

—0.18

—0.24

+0.08

—0.03

Space 120= 28'-3b .
Reduction.

+0.37"

+0.24

+0.49

+0.60

+0.15

+0.37

Mean.

—0.30

Space 205° 04-06',
Reduction.

+0.26"

+0.18

+0.14

—0.03

—0.20

+0.07

Space 202° 36'-38'
Reduction.

+0.28"

+0.24

-0.06

—0.60

—0.10

—0.05

Finally, for the errors of the divisions employed in this work

Division.

205'^ 04'
205 06

IMean.

Division.

118° 00'
118 02

Error.

— 0.46'
—0.53

—0.50

Error.

+0.06'
+0.09

+0.08

Division.

Error.

202° 36'
202 38

-0.25'
—0.20

-0.22

Division.

Error.

120° 28'
120 30

+0.26'
-0.11

+0.08

Division.

Error.

71° 32'
71 34

+ 0.10 ■
+ 0.40

+0.25

9. — Eccentricity of Fine Circle.

The eccentricity of the fine circle was determined by pointing on the
10° lines, first with microscopes I and III, and then with II and lY, the
instrument being clamp east. The readings were made so as to eliminate
progressive changes proportional to the time. Thus are obtained the fol-
lowing values for O and -^, 2 being the direction of the line joining
the center of the circle to the center of revolution, e the distance between
the centers, and r the radius of the circle:

HALL, ABERRATION CONSTANT. 53

Microscopes III and I. Microscopes IV and II.

e" 11

T = 'J-41" O = 180° 07 — =4.13" O = 182° 04'

r r

4.03 179 37 3.61 176 32

The above values give for the means

— " = 4.04" O = 179° 35'.
r

In order to reduce an actual reading on the circle, A', to a reading A^
counted at the center of the circle, we have

A = A'— — ain (A'- O).
r

10. — The Microscopes.

These are su])ported on arms which are clamped to the brass discs de-
scribed in article 3. This arrangement seemed to me at first not a good
one, but in fact the arms do not move much, and the nadir determinations
agree as well as those made with other instruments. This plan of mount-
ing the microscoi)es I have heard criticised, however, by a number of ex-
perieii(<'d observers.

To the brass discs which hold the microscope arms I had brackets
attached, and these brackets carry fine screws which butt against the
arms, making it possible to adjust them easily.

Illumination is obtained by means of little electric lamps attached to
the ends of the microscopes, the light coming in at right angles to the
line of sight, and being reflected against the circle by a plaster of Paris
surface. The lamps are somewhat near the circle, but as they are lighted
only for an instant I think there is no danger of heating it. The light is
furnished from chloride accumulator cells which are charged from the
University lighting })lant. The microsco])es are of low magnifying power,
about 10. The ])ower should be considerably greater.

• The periodic errors of the screws were found as described by Professor
Newcomb in the Washington Observations for 1865, by measuring the
interval between the parallel wires of each microscope, bringing each
wire near a circle division and separating it from this division by a dis-
tance e(iual to its own thickness. ]n this waj' the periodic errors for the
respective microscopes were found to be

I - 0.062' cos u -f 0.033' sin u

II —0.186 cos u +0.231 sin u

III +0,004 cos u +0.0.17 sin u

IV -0.012 cos u +0.07.5 sin u

For clamp east I is lower inicrosco])e on north side, II is upper on north
side, III upper on south side, and IV^ lower on south side.

For clamp west I is lower on south side, II upper on south side. Ill
upper on north side, and IV lower on north side. The microscopes
were taken in this way for my own convenience in recording.

On September 19, 1899, I happened to loosen the divided head of micro-
scope IV, and turned it on the shank.

The periodic error was then found to be

IV +0.057" cos u +0.039" sin u

On May 10. 1900, the spider lines of two of the microscopes became
loose, owing to the use of too much oil on the screws, the oil working on to

54 MICHIGAN ACADEMY OP SCIENCE.

the slides and touching the threads, New lines were inserted and the
screws were mounted in a small lathe and cleaned. Though I requested
that the positions of the divided heads on the shanks be carefully marked
this was not done, and large periodic errors were found after the return
of the microscopes. I think that when the instrument was made the
microscope heads were placed on the shanks and divided so as to elimi-
nate the periodic errors of the screws. Therefore I made a number of
attempts to find the proper positions of the heads, but was not able to
do it in the time at my disposal.

For the period, then, 1900, May 10 to June 6 we have the following
values of the periodic errors, these being determine by measuring the
distance between a division and a well defined speck of dirt found on the
circle, rather a better method, I think than the one spoken of above:

I —0.576" cos u —0.288" sin u
II -0.280 cos u— 0.738 sin u

III —0.147 cos u —0.047 sin u

IV +0,026 cosu+O.OJO sin u

After 1900, June 6, we have for microscopes I, IF and IV

I +0.036" cos u -0.502" sin u

II —0.052 COSU-4-0.0U sin u

IV +0.014 cos u +0.107 sin u

In the case of III we have after Juue 6, 1900, and before July 14, 1900

III +0.532" COS u +0.352" sin u

After 1900, July 14

in +0.176" COS u +0.7.58' sin u.

In the summer of 1901 I made another determination of the periodic
errors which agreed with the final values as given above.

It would he better to arrange to eliminate periodic errors, perhaps by
using two pairs of threads, 1.5 revolutions apart.

The progressive errors of the microscope screws are negligible through-
out the interval in which they were employed.

It requires about one day to reverse this meridian circle and readjust
the microscopes.

]1. — The ColUmating Telescopes.

These are small, having as approximate dimensions : diameter of object
glasses 2.094 inches, focal length 2 feet, power of eye-pieces 38, distance
between wyes 11.2 inches. The three screws which support ear-h tel( scope-
stand are at the vertices of ah equilateral triangle a side of whicli is 9.1
inches. Each stand is adjustable in level and azimuth.

A number of attempts were made to obtain the flexure of the meridian
circle by means of the collimators, but I was never able to level them
with a delicate level, and finally gave it up.

12. — Flexure.

The flexure coefficients were determined from observations of known
stars, it being assumed that the effect can be expressed in the form

ai sin z + bi cos z + ao sin 2z + b^ cos 2/., etc.

Then calling Z the true zenith distance we have for direct and reflected
observations, N being the nadir reading of the circle,

HALL, ABERRATION CONSTANT.

55

180°

= Zi + ai sin z + bi cos z + a,2 ^i" 2z+ bj cos 2z

- (180° + N) + bi - b.j (1)

. Z = zo + ai sin z — b| cos z — aj sin 2z + b^ cos 2z

- (180° + N) + bi - ba (2)

After the instruiiient is reversed the corresponding formulas are

360 — Z = Z3 — 111 sin z -\- b| cos z — 32 sin 2z + ba cos 2z
- (180° + N) +bi -ba

ai sin z — bi cos z + a2 sin 2z + b2 cos 2z

— (180^ + N) +bi -b2

180° + Z = Z4 ■

(3)

(4)

By combining formulas (1) and (3) the cosine coefficients can be ob-
tained. Accordingly stars were observed north and south of the zenith
in both positions of the instrument for this purpose.

From 22 south stars is obtained

bi = -1.13 , b,

-0.-17

and from 26 north stars

bi = -1.50", bo = -0.49"

The term 6^. seems" really to exist, though it will require a good many
observations to determine it with accuracy, since the weights of observa-
tions made at large zenith distances are small. The following table of
approximate weights has been computed with the zenith distance as

argument :

z

Weight.

z

Weight.

0=

4.4
4.4
4.2
4.0
3.7
3.3
2.9

65°

2.7

10

70

75

2.3

20

1.5

mi

80

0.9

•10 . . ...

81

0.8

45

82

0.7

60

By measuring the distance on the circle between north and south stars
of about 60° zenith distance the coefficient a, of the sine flexure was
obtained,

ai =--

-1.20"

Some attempts were made to find the flexure coefficients by treating
the north and south stars separately. But the cosine coefficients enter
with -such large relative weights that the process is not accurate. It was
necessary to insert, also, a term to represent any correction of the lati-
tude, and this has a large relative weight. The latitude was assumed to
be +48° 16' 49.3''.

Taking then the north and south stars separately, these values were
obtained :

Clamp West-
North stars.
South stars

Clamp East-
North stars
South stars

a,

bi

+1.72'-
+1.C0

+0.72
+2.59

-2.30'
-1.50

-1.00
-1.66

A-l"

+0.40'
—0.36

+0.03
—0.53

56

MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

Combining all the stars used for flexure we find

Clamp West ,
Clamp East . .

ai

bi

+1 00"
+ 1.37

-2.10"
-1.13

A*

40.51 '
—0.38

The flexure as found represents the combined ett'eet on the circle and
telescope, which as yet has not been separated into the two parts. Such
a term as 1)^ in the flexure of the telescope proper would be caused, I
suppose, by the axis of symmetrj^ of the telescope not coinciding with
the neutral axis.

As has been stated the value of *. was assumed +48° 16' 49.3", and a*
is the correction to be added to this. In order to check the value of a*^
I have assumed the values a^ = + 1.20", &, =:-1.46", and have used only
stars near the zenith for computing this ciuantity, with the following
results:

Clamp East— South stars a <|> = 53"
North stars — 0-85

Clamp West— South stars
North stars

Mean

-0.31
-0.66

-0.58

For the present, the latitude can be assumed

+42° 16' 48.8".

Situated as we are, an elaborate determination of the division errors
cannot be made, so that it will be necessary to secure more values of the
latitude, turning the circle on its axis, and observing direct and reflected,
and clamp east and west. From my experience with large, heavy instru-
ments I do not believe much in the application of such corrections as those
of flexure and division error, but think that observations should be ar-
ranged as far as possible so as to eliminate all such quantities.

The flexure seems to be rather constant. Before beginning observations
of Polaris, I had the foreman of the University engineering shops ex-
amine the screws which hold the telescope cones to the cube. It was his
opinion that I had driven them up too tight, and, therefore, they were
loosened a trifle.

13. — Meteorological Instruments.

The standard barometer was examined at Ann Arbor by Professor
Marvin of the Weather Bureau Oflice in the summer of 1892. It was
found to be badly out of order, and in trying to make repairs the glass
tube was broken. The instrument was then taken to tlie Weather Bureau
OflSce in Washington, and a new 1ul)e was filled and inserted. Also, a
new attiu-hed llicniiometer was ]»ut on, since the old one was found 1°
in error.

Our thermometers, also, have been examined by the Weather Bureau
and I have to thank the officials in Washington and Lansing for the con-
siderable attention wliicli tliey liavc ]>aid 1o our meteorological instru-
ments.

HALL, ABERRATION CONSTANT. 57

For rofractions liessol's tables were used as prepared by Professor J.
K. lOastiiiau for Lite Naval Observatory. The tlierniometer was hung near
the object glass of the telescope. For daytime observations of Polaris
as much as possible of the open slit was covered with canvas, and a large
piece of canvas was })ulled up over most of the roof, which is tin, the
canvas being sprea<l some time before observing. However, with any
such observing room as ours there must be some uncertainty regarding the
refraction, but I did not feel like attempting any reduction for the con-
dition of the room. I was careful to air it for several hours before
working.

lJ,.—The 'Nadir.

This was determined over a shallow basin of iron, the concave part,
which holds the mercury, being plated with copper. The basin was turned
180° in the middle of any series of observations. As stated, all zenith
distance settings were made with the tangent screw, there being no
micrometer for that cordinate. To observe the nadir it was necessary to
run up two small rods connected with Hooke's joints, and supported by
large rods held by the microscope arms of the coarse circle.

A complete determination of the nadir includes four i-ettiugs, two
divisions on the circle being read after each setting. All nadir observa-
tions were made facing north. For observations of Polaris the nadir was
taken immediately before and immediately after the zenith distance point-
ings. If it is assumed that the difference between the nadir at the begin-
ning and that at the end of a series is due only to accidental errors, we
have for the probable error of a complete nadir determination, four
pointings,

± 0.28",
and for the mean of two determinations,

± 0.20".

The above results for the probable error of a nadir determination are
a little larger than is the case with some instruments. The values as
given include the error from the circle readings. The microscopes are of
low power, about 16.

The number of observations examined was 77. The mean of each night's
nadir was regarded as the true value. Thus two residuals were formed
for each observation. Then for the 77 observations [t;y]=133100, the unit
being 0.01".

A smaller probable error for a nadir determination would be found by
comparing among themselves the separate nadir pointings. In this way is
obtained [vy] =284942, the unit being 0.01". Then for the probable error
of a single nadir pointing including the reading of the circle is found the
value ± 0.194", the number of single pointings considered being 646. For
the mean of four settings, then, or a complete determination of one nadir,
is obtained ± 0.10". These smaller values I think are fictitious.

15. — IncUnatiou of Horizontal Threads.

The pointings on Polaris were made symmetrically on each side of the
meridian so as to eliminate the inclination of the horizontal threads.
These are about 5" apart, the object pointed on being placed midway
between them.

8

58

MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

I have examined the wire inclination during the periods 1898, May 23.4
to June 14.8 iiirlusivp. niul December 10.3 to December 27.8 inclusive,
taking account of the change of refraction during each day's observation.
Calling the effect of the incliijation of the horizontal threads cos S sin t. I,
where t is the hour angle and / the inclination, the values of I for the
two periods as determined from Polaris are:

TcJescopc clamp c<i.sf, Pohnis direct, East zenith distances too great,
or E. ends of threads too high.

I8y8

Miiy ■-'3.4

Zi.9

•ib 4

2.V9

2t).y

30 3

30.8

Juue 1.3

•i»

y. 4

K X

n .T

S'jni

Mean

' \

+59. 0-- I

+57.9 1

— 13.6

1 +80.3

—45.9

4-152 2 i

+24.6 i

+73.0

+65.8

+44.5

+89.5

+113.9

+701.2"

+58. 4'-
1

1898.

December 10.3

12.8

13.3

13.8

153

15.8

17.3

18.3

24.3

27.3

27.8

Sum

Mean

—90.5"

+ 146.2
+ 176.0

+ ?;0 4

+59.0
+ 152.6

-26.5
+159.0
+224.1

+74.5

-h64.6

+ 969.4'

+88.1"

16. — Prohahle Error of Single Pointing on Polaris.

If it is assumed that the value of I for the first period referred to in
article 15 is 58.4'', and for the second period 88.1", it is possible to com-
pute the probable error of a single pointing for each date taken separate-
ly. The nadir used on each data is the mean of the observed nadirs, and
the reading of the circle is included with the pointing.

Probahle en or of a single pointing on Polaris.

1898

May 23.4

24.9

25.4

25.9

26.9

30.3

30.8

June 1.3

2.8

3.4

6.8

14.3

Number
pointings.

Probable

error
poinling.

7

±0.25"

7

±0.36

7

±0.48

7

±0.28

7

±0.33

1

±0.41

7

±0.35

7

±0.25

7

±0.31

7

±0.21

7

±0.42

7

±0.35

1898.
December 10.3
12.8
13.3
13. H
15.3
15. i<
17.3
18.3
24.3
27.3
27.8

Number
pointings.

Probable

error
pointing.

±0.40"

±0.45

±0.43

±0.29

±0.08

±0.22

±0.27

±0.33

±0.37

±0.52

±0.35

The probable error of a single pointing is taken as ± 0.33".
For the mean of 7 pointings the probable error is ± 0.13". Compounding
this with ± 0.20", the probable error of the mean of two nadir determina-

HALL, ABIlRRATIO.V CONSTANT. 59

tions, we obtain for the probable error of tlie eorrespondiug zenith dis-
tance ± 0.24:". This ((uantity is to be combined with the probable erroj- of
the refraction tables, wliich for Polaris may be taken asiCS''. So that
for one observation of 7 pointinj?s the total probable error is ± 0.38".

Tn ordinary observations the nncertainty of the division marks should
be included as well as that of the flexure.

/7. — Observations of Polaris.

At first the conditions imposed on the observations were too severe. I
attempted to obtain always successive culminations, and at each culmina-
tion both direct and reflected observations. On account of the Aveather
and duties of instruction it was necessary to give up the idea of observing
only successive culminations, and being for most of the time without a
recorder T could not make observations both direct and reflected without
working rather near to the edge of the field.

Since the direct observations above and below x)ole extend over about
the same periods of time, the latitude variation will be eliminated from
the determination of the aberration constant, as well as other disturb-
ances of a like nature, including changes in the flexure.

It is planned to take more of these observations and with some assist-
ance the necessar}' frequent reversals could be made, in order to determine
the latitude variation with accuracy.

The following are the observations of Polaris corrected for refraction
and reduced to the meridian. For each observation seven pointings were
usually taken, though sometimes five or nine. However, each observation
has been given the same weight.

For reduction to the meridian has been used the expression

sin 5 1/2 (T— m)

sin 2 6.

sin 1"

In this, 8 is the apparent declination as taken from the ephemeris, and
the single term is sufficient.

All the declinations of Polaris have been taken from the Berliner
Jahrbuch. An account of the terms included in the computation of ap-
parent jilaces is given in the Jahrbuch for 1884.

The reduction to 1900.0 is given in order that the observations may be
comx)ared among 'themselves.

The nadirs for any observations were interpolated when they differed
more than 0.3".

The images and steadiness are marked on the scale 1-5, 1 being perfect.

60

MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

OBSERVATIONS OB' POLARIS. CLAMP EAST. NADIRS.

Date.

Sid
H.

. T.
M.

Nadirs.

Sid
H.

. T.
M.

Nadirs.

April

1898.
25 9

•

0-

26
35

17
7
15
22
23
22
25

23
31
16
11
20
26

27
35
12
30
07
18
19
19
27

11
17
10
08
22
14

29
25
28

35
18
27
32

46
30
30
21

17
32

20

15

7

21

10
47
17
30
42

27
12
37
27

41

22
18
25
25
21
21
43
21

71° 33' 08.58"
71 33 08.54

71 33 07.24
71 33 06.70
71 33 06.13
71 33 04.76
71 33 08.31'
71 33 10.12
71 33 11.68

71 33 6.24
71 33 5.50
71 33 2.74
71 3? 2.63
71 33 2.02
71 33 2.60

71 33 7.80
71 33 5.42
71 33 6.52
71 33 4 92
71 33 7.64
71 33 7.22
71 33 6.22
71 33 6.21
71 33 4.70

71 33 3.40
71 33 5.03
71 33 7.04
71 33 5., 58
71 33 0.00
71 33 0.86

71 33 97
71 33 4.62
71 32 58.64

71 33 0.45
71 33 1.26
71 32 59.75
71 33 4.13

71 33 3.12
71 32 59.42
71 32 58.14
71 33 1.14

71 32 54.12
71 33 6.90
71 33 7.94
71 33 10.75
21 32 55.66

71 32 57.78
71 33 1.56
71 33 0.20
71 33 0.83
71 32 58.30
71 32 56.14

71 32 57.16
71 32 43 96
71 32 58.06
71 33 21.68

71 33 0.58

71 33 0.22
71 33 0.88
71 32 57.00
71 32 .57.27
71 32 .57.48
71 32 58.08
71 32 .54.94
71 32 58.64

2
2

2
2
2
2
2
2
2

2
2
2
2
2
2

2
2

2
2
2
2
2

2
2

2
.->

3
o

2
2

2

2
2

2
2
2
2

2

2
2
.7

2
2
2
2-
2

2

2
'>

2

2

2

2
2
2
2

2

2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2

23
23

18
14
15
12
10
13
12

15
20
17
10
22
15

22
13

20
27
22
15
13
11
19

14
20
19
13
11
11

18
14
16

24
22

17
10

23

16
15
14

25
14
46
11
12

27
32
00
09
08
17

35

27
00
20

07

37
13
08

07
05
00
06
00

71° 33' 07 96"

26.9

71 33 07 76

May

5.9

71 33 06.70

8.9

71 33 05.76

16 9

71 33 05 36

24.9

71 33 04.53

25 9

71 33 08 34

26.9

71 33 10.24

30.9 ' .

71 33 11.11

June

2.8

71 33 6.07

6.8

71 33 5 08

16.8

71 33 2.89

19.8

71 33 3.14

20.8. ..»

71 33 3 18

22.8

71 33 3 07

July

5.8

71 33 7 88

71 33 5.08

10.7

71 33 7.00

13.7

71 33 5.20

20.7

21.7

71 33 8.75
71 33 7.60

22.7

71 33 7.02

71 33 6.30

26.7

71 33 5.17

August

4.7

71 33 3.00

9.7

71 33 5.22

13.7

19 7

71 33 6.78
71 33 4.78

25.6

71 33 0.06

26.6

71 33 1.16

Septembei

- 24.5

71 33 0.50

26.5

71 33 3.43

28.5

71 32 57.82

October

8.5.

71 33 1.56

11.5

71 33 0.82

27.4

71 32 59.59

31.4

71 33 4.17

November

7.4

71 33 3.00

12.4

71 32 59.49

13.4

71 32 58.07

26.4

71 33 0.64

December

10.3

71 32 54.20

13.3

71 33 6.67

15.3

71 33 7.48

17.3

71 33 10.40

31.3

71 32 54.39

January

1899.
2.3

71 32 57.82

9.2

71 33 1.06

14.2

71 33 0.32

21.2 .

71 33 1.36

24.2

71 3SJ 57.94

31.2

71 32 .56.26

February

8.2

71 32 56.96

13.2

71 32 43.18

16.2

71 32 58.40

24.1

71 33 22.56

March

1.1

71 33 1.29

April

4.0

71 32 59.10

9.0

71 33 0.18

18.9

71 32 56.38

20.9

71 32 57.50

23.9

71 32 57.83

25.9

27.9

71 32 58 37
71 32 54.32

28.9

71 82 58.22

HALL, ABERRATION CONSTANT.

OBSERVATIONS OF POLARIS. CLAMP EAST. NADIRS.

61

Date.

1899.

May 8.9

10.9

23.8

24.8

June 1.8

3.8

4.8

29.7

July 8.7

10.7

18.7

22.7

August 10.7

12.7

13.7

September 1.6

11.6

13.5

26. .5

30.5

October 2.5

—= *

1898.

April 26.4

27.4....

May 5.4

7.4

9.4

23.4

25.4

30.3

June 1.3

3.3

14.3

17.3 •

21.3

22.3

July 6.2

9.2

11.2

12.2

14.2

21.2

22-2

29.2

August 2.2

4.2

10.2...

25.1

26.1

27.1

September 25.0

27.0

29.0

October 90

14.9

24.9

26.9

November 2.9

15.9 :

24.8 :

Sid. T.
H. M.

12
12

12

12.
12
12
12
12

12
12
12
12
12
12

12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12

12
12
12
12
12
12

12
12
12

12
12
12
12

12
12

37
32
25
32

42
40
30
06

16
24
17
15

29
20
23

38
21
15
31
40

10

29
31

25
22
20
44
23
35

40
27
31

27
26
28

12

24
20
28
38
7
18
13

19
10
06
09
16
26

15

5

20

30
31
42
10

35
23
11

Nadirs.

71° 32' 57.38'

71 32 58.01

71 32 58.42

71 32 57.75

71 32 57.53

71 32 58.08

71 32 58.99

71 32 57.84

71 32 57.02

71 32 57.45

71 32 57.98

71 33 1.76

71 32 57.94

71 32 56.60

71 32 54.87

71
71
71
71
71

32
32
32
32
32

58.12
57.77
59.06
55.18
55.42

71 32 55.20

71° 33' 8.14"
71 33 7.76

71
71
71

71
71
71

33
33
'33
33
33
33

71 33

71 33

71 33

71 33

71 33

71 33

71 33

71 33

71 33

71 33

71 33

71 33

71 33

71 33

7.32
6.39
6.62
4.37
4.50
12.20

6.38
6.66
4.35
2.44
2.10
2.44

53
13

48
20
80
04
72
90

Sid. T.
H. M.

71
71
71
71
71
71

33
33
33
33
33
33

4.63
4.18
8.00
1.76
0.62
0.62

71 33 2.05

71 33 2.94

71 33 6.32

71 33 1.63

71 33 1.82

71 33 0.67

71 32 59.90

71 33 4.64

71 33 3.72

71 33 1.16

14
14

14
14
14
14
14
14

14
14
14
14
14
14

14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14

14
14
14
14
14
14

14
14
14

14
14
14
14

14
14
14

05
15
10
12

15

10
21
00

20
18
13
12

18
15
16

16

18
17
21
14

25

Nadirs.

10
13

12
13

10
30
07
15

05
13
10
14
10
16

15

10
12
13
12
08
15
12

14
25
15
20
14
00

14
11

12
18
14

18

16
20

18

71° 32' 57.63"

71 32 57.88

71 32 58.66

71 32 57.92

71 32 58.09

71 32 57.80

71 32 .59.14

71 32 58.39

71 32 58.34

71 32 57.82

71 32 58.02

71 33 1.98

71 32 58.36

71 32 58.00

71 32 56.42

71
71
71
71
71

32
32
32
32
32

58.38
57.87
59.26
55.21
55.64

71 32 54.82

71° 33'
71 33

71
71
71
71
71
71

33
33
33
33
33
33

71 33

71 33

71 33

71 33

71 33

71 33

71 33

71 33

71 33

71 33

71 33

71 33

71 .33

71 33

71 33

71 33

71 33

71 33

71 33

71 33

7.14"
7.72

7.36
5.98
5.80
4.10
4.21
12.02

6.28
5.98
4.92
2.34
2.17
2.81

5 44
6.33
5.36
5.85
5.57
5.76
5 90
5.29

4.63
4.06
7.72
1.50
0.86
0.67

1 33 1.83
1 33 3.52
1 33 6.78

71 33 1.90

71 33 1.42

71 33 0.64

71 33 0.04

71 33 4.77

71 33 4.58

71 33 1.56

62

MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

OBSERVATIONS OF POLARIS. CLAMP EAST. NADIRS.

Date.

1898.

December 12.8

13.8

15.8

28.8

1899.

January 6.8

9.7

14.7

26.7

31.7

February 6.7

13.7

21.7

27.6

March 23.5

April 8.5

9.5

10.5

20.4

22.4

25.4

May 3.4....

5.4

8.4

24.4

28.3

June 2.3

July 6.2

11.2

12.2

22.2

August 2.2

7.2

12.2

September 3.1

4.1

9.1

11.1

13.1

16.1

1898.

August 1.7

14.7

20.6

October 15.5

November 2.4

3.4

19.4

27.3

December 18.3

24.3

27.3

1899.

January 1.3

7.2

10.2

19.2

29.2

Sid.

T.

H.

M.

12

22

12

27

12

19

12

24

12

25

12

16

12

45

12

26

12

20

12

35

12

27

12

39

12

30

12

22

12

35

12

17

12

00

12

16

12

33

12

25

12

12

12

22

12

20

12

48

12

24

12

26

12

18

12

31

12

40

12

15

12

17

12

16

12

17

12

27

12

24

12

19

12

01

12

02

12

00

15

12

10

26

26

30

24

18

17

31

27

16

34

34

18

39

Nadirs.

71° 33' 7.12"

71 33 6.38

71 33 7.79

71 33 0.17

71

71
71
71
71

32
33
32
32
32

54.62
0.84
59 79
55.67
55.92

71 32 58.46

71 32 55.43

71 32 56.01

71 32 59.16

71 32 55.08

71
71
71
71
71
71

71
71
71
71
71

33
32
32
32
32
32

32
32
32
32
32

0.46
59.35
58.55
57.47
57.21
57.94

55.90
56.17
56.78
58.92
57.51

71 32 57.78

71 32 57.16

71 32 58.25

71 32 58.82

71 32 58.65

71 32 58.04

71 32 57.22

71 32 57.22

71 32 58.12

71 32 57.17

71 32 56.53

71 32 56.66

71 32 57.24

32 57.98

71

71° 33' 5.98"

71 33 6.00

71 33 5.90

71 32 59.87

71
71
71
71

33
33
33
33

4.56
4.52
5.08
0.71

71 .S3 10.10
71 32 57.. 53
71 32 59.55

71
71
71
71

32
32
32
32
32

55.36
.57.49
,59.21
.59.. 58
57.37

Sid

T.

H.

M.

14

10

14

22

14

29

14

18

14

17

14

15

14

00

14

25

14

32

14

37

14

38

14

22

14

11

14

05

14

00

14

14

14

02

14

11

14

13

14

15

14

00

14

07

14

09

14

03

14

21

14

06

14

15

14

15

14

09

13

12

14

06

14

02

14

13

14

12

14

14

14

11

14

15

14

00

14

11

2

18

2

13

2

20

2

26

<">

21

2

19

2

17

2

27

2

16

2

07

2

16

2

23

2

37

2

18

2

20

2

22

Nadirs.

71° 33' 6.37"

71 33 6.23

71 33 8.19

71 33 0.20

71
71
71
71
71

32
32
33
32
32

54.81
59.52
0.02
55.88
56.20

71 32 58.55

71 32 53.90

71 32 56.70

71 32 59.72

71 32 .55.64

71
71
71
71
71
71

71
71

33
32
32
32
32
32

0.69
58.48
58.64
.56.28
57.30
57.35

32 54.76
32 55.88
71 32 55.93

71
71

32 57.42
32 56.87

71 32 56.86

71 32 .57.50

71 32 57.70

71 32 57.95

71 32 .58.34

71 32 57.54

71 32 57.34

71 32 56.52

71 32 57.54

71 32 57.23

71 32 56.70

71 82 .56.36

71 32 57.26

71 32 57.73

71° 33' 5.04"

71 33 5.86

71 33 4.88

71 33 0.35

71
71
71
71

33
33
33

32

4.48

4.54

4.78

59.85

71 33 9.96
71 32 .58.05
71 32 58.07

71
71
71

71
71

32
32
32
32
32

55.22
57.60
.59.00
59.98
57 or

HALL, ABERRATION CONSTANT.

OBSERVATIONS OF POLARIS. CLAMP EAST. NADIRS.

63

Date.

Sid.
H.

T.
M.

Nadirs.

Sid
H.

T.
M.

Nadirs.

1899.

Tilly 17 7

18
09
14

28
21
21

01
22
36

71° 32' 58.20"
71 32 58.09
71 32 56.82

71 32 57.70
71 32 56.96
71 32 56.84

71 32 57.58
71 32 57.17
71 32 56.96

2
2

2

2
2
2

2
2
2

20
12
14

16
16
14

19
14
12

71° 32' 58.70"

21 7

71 32 58.20

31.7

71 32 57.24
71 32 57.58

5.7

71 32 56.60

6 7

71 32 56.87

Sentember 2.6

71 32 58.06

12.6

71 .32 56.76

14 5

71 32 57.78

1898.
Mav 13 4

12
12

12
12

12
12
12
12

12
12

12
12
12
12
12
12
12

12
12

12

12
12
12

12

26
15

16
12

14
12

40
17

27
00

18
20
40
30
39
10
26

24
24

38
49
36
20

30

71° 33' 5.26"
71 33 6.20

71 32 57.14
71 32 .53.61

71 32 ,59.04
71 32 58.71
71 32 .57.98
71 33 3.41

71 32 56.96
71 32 58.78

71 32 59.92
71 33 0.04
71 33 1..56
71 33 0.94
71 32 56.72
71 33 58.20
71 32 56.75

71 32 56.78
71 32 57.51

71 32 58.24
71 32 58.58
71 32 58.12
71 32 58.74

71 33 0.32

14
14

14
14

14
14
14
14

14
14

14
14
14
14
14
14
14

14
14

14
14
14
14

14

12
16

26

29

13
16
17
16

22
15

18
20
08
15
04
15
34

09
21

09
03
16
13

14

71° 33' 4.60"

17.4

71 33 5.19

Deftember 27.8

71 32 57.86

71 32 53.69

.Tanuarv 2 8

71 32 59.22

71 32 58.08

18.7

71 32 56.86

21 7

71 33 3.06

71 32 57.12

28.6

71 32 58.58

Auril 3.5

71 32 59.22

71 33 0.09

13 5

71 33 1.36

14 5

71 33 0.62

17.4

71 32 56.40

71 32 58.12

28.4

71 32 56.36

May 8.4

71 32 55.93

71 32 56.87

.Tune 26 3

71 32 58.54

27 3

71 32 58.54

29 3

71 32 58.20

30 3

71 32 58.54

July 13

71 33 0.36

64

MICHIGAN ACADEMY OP SCIENCE.

OBSERVATIONS OF POLARIS. CLAMP WEST. NADIRS.

Date.

1899.

Jane 10.8

1.T.8

16.8

October 5.5

9.5

2>.4

23.4

November 26.3

December 17.3

19.3

26.3

1900.

January 21.3

22.2

24.2

29.2

February 1.2

9.2

10.2

11.2

19.1

March 2.1

3.1

23.0

24.0

31.0

April 1.0

4.0

7.0

18.9

25.9

28.9

30.9

May 4.9

20.8

June 12.8

14.8

15.8

17.8

19 8

July 11.7

12.7

15.7

21.7

25.7

August 3.7

5.7

6.7

14.7

15.7

18.6

31.6

September 21.6

27.5

29.5

October 3.5

9.5

12.5

19.4 ,. ..

November 26.4

December 2.3

13.3

Sid. T.
H. M.

20
13

00

30
31
16
35

05

27
35
26

40
37
34
26

35
22
42
20
16

39
51
00

28
21

27
26
29
32
32
42
30

51
34

.■=0
37
46
25
28

19
33
41
38
40

28

23

24

4H'

43

33

31

25

29
30

20
24
33
34

22

Nadirs.

.55
34

71° 33'
71 32
71 33

71
71
71

71
71
71
71
71

71
71
71
71
71
71
71

71
71

71
71
71
71
71

71
71
71
71

2.82'

57.93

0.10

71 32 .56.06

71 32 .58. W

71 33 2.22

71 32 52.46

71 33 3.20

32

32
32

43.36
40.97
43.16

71 32 46.08

71 32 46.50

71 32 46.26

71 32 47.48

71 32 51.68

71 32 ,53.70

71 32 53.22

71 32 55.84

71 33 7.49

32
32

32
32
32

32
32
32
32
32
32
32

52.28
53.. 52
.54.06
55.44
54.44

54.78
.50.06
52.14
57.00
57.08
51.95
51.84

32 53.34
32 45.34

32
32
32

32
32

48.87
48.02
45.90
49.77
50.97

71 32 50.56

71 32 51.01

71 32 53.25

71 32 51.94

71 32 53.23

71 32 52.08

71 32 .57.29

71 32 51.48

71 32 .52.16

71 32 52.31

71 32 51.68

71 32 ,52.70

71 32 .53.38

71 32 53.38

71 32 54,30

32
32
32
32

54.94

.52.04
.54.58
56.97

71 32 48.64

71 32 49.13
71 32 49.60

Sid

T.

H.

M.

2

11

2

04

2

09

2

22

2

07

2

15

2

10

2

58

o

12

2

04

2

10

2

18

2

08

O

05

2

32

o

30

2

46

2

33

2

00

2

29

2

30

O

07

2

05

9

06

2

52

2

57

2

36

3

15

2

37

2

12

2

11

2

16

2

08

9

12

2

08

2

51

2

06

2

17

2

57

2

60

2

37

2

16

2

08

2

27

2

34

2

14

2

30

2

22

2

08

2

08

2

10

2

32

2

30

2

29

2

13

2

43

2

19

2

50

2

15

2

05

2

30

Nadirs.

71°
71

71

71
71
71

71
71
71
71
71

71
71
71
71

71

71
71
71

71
71
71

71
71

71
71

71

71
71

71
71
71

71
71
71
71

71
71
71

33' 3.43"
32 58.25
32 59.92

71 32 55.56

71 32 58.64

71 33 3.14

71 32 52.48

71 33 2.89

32

32
32

43.91
40.62
41.55

71 32 45.64

71 32 46.10

71 .32 46.11

71 32 48.10

32
32
32
32
33

32
32
32
32
32

32
32
32
32
32
32
32

32
32
32
32
32
32
32

51.58
52.74
.54.06
55.43

7.73

.53.72
.53.76
54.08
56.04
56.23

56.03
49.85
51.76
.57.92
.58.44
52.90
52.18

32 .54.39
32 46.06

32
32
32
32
32

49.44
49.53
46.80
.50.41
51.19

32 .50.26

32 .50.71

71 32 .53.19

71 32 51.89

71 32 51.27

51.. 57
.57.10
.50.64
.52.04
51.57
51.67
51.80

32 .52.92
32 .52.70
32 53.76

71 .32 54.5)2

71 32 51.97

71 .32 .54.12

71 32 56.66

71 32 48.81

32
32

49.10
48.50

HAI.L, AUKllUATIOiX CONSTANT.
OBSERVATIONS OF POLARIS. CLAMP WEST. NADIRS.

65

Date.

1901.

January 20.2

30.2

February 7.2

1899.

.lune 12.3

16.3

33.3

October 11.9

17.9.... .

30.9 . ..

23.9

24.9

November 29. 8

December 5.8

7.8

19.8

20.8...:

1900.

January 21.7

22.7

27.7

28.7

30.7

February 9.6

10 6

13.6

17.6

March 1.6

2.6

19.6 :.

23.5

30.5

31.5

April 3.5

9.5

10.5

25.4

27.4

30.4

May 6.4

26.3

June 12.3

18.3

28.3

July 4.2

5.2

9.2

13.2

21.2

28.2

-August 7.2

10.2

24.1

29.1

September 6.1

12.1

14.1

30.0 '....

Sid. T.
H. M.

13
12
12

12
15
12
12
12

12
12
12
12

12
12
12
12
12

12
12
12
12

12
12
12
12
12
12

12
12
12
12
12
12

12
12

12
12
12

12
12
12
12
12
12

12
12
12
12

12
12-
12
12

31

27

23

20
31
31

20
24
14
31
29

48

33
30
23
14

22
20
40

20
24

21
26
33

16

28
32
43
20
31
49

24
19
46
37
26
43

48
45

32
47
40

10
21
48
38
38
47

55

40
27
42

35
25

48
19

Nadirs.

71° 32 53.44"
71 32 51.30

71 32 57.76

71 33' 1.84"

71 32 59.88

71 32 59.86

71 32 58.22
71 33 0.14

71 33 .03

32 52 18

32 51.56

71

71

n 32 50.12

"I
71
71

71

71

32
32
32
32

47.72
47.12
40.03
40.31

71 32 45.37

71 32 45 50

71 32 48.46

71 32 44.24

71 32 49.24

71 32 51.84

71 32 52 90

71 32 52.48

71 33 06.55

71 32 51.26

71 32 .52.92

71 33 53.56

71 33 .54.48

71 32 56.20

71 32 .54.46

71 32 49.06

71 32 50.30

32 50.90

71 32 57.34

71 33 .57.92

71 32 51.74

71 33 53.18

71 32 53.07

71 32 49.50

71 32 52.00

71 33 50.07

71 32 51.54

71 33 50.13

71 33 50.12

71 Si 51.80

71 32 52.68

71 32 52.40

71 33 48.22

71 32 48.76

71 3 J .52 98

71 33 53.60

71 32 48.74

71 33 49 66

71 32 63.21

71 32 54.76

Sid. T.
H. M.

14
14
14

14
14
14
14

14

14

14
14
14
14

II
14
14
14
14

14
14
14
14

14
14
14
14
14
14

14
14
14
14
14
14

14
14

14
14
14

14
14
14
14
14
14

14
14
14
14

14
14
14
14

2 25

11

09
17

14
15
05
09
14

14

30
11
10
10

11
11

23
34
41

12
14
14
39

44
29

07
03
03
09

14
15
05
13
13
13

13
25

13
15
06

54
11
51
60
51
13

04
08
11
17

30
35
11
47

Nadirs.

71° 32' 54.46'
71 32 51.08

7t 32 .57.81

71°
71

71

71
71
71

71
71

71
71
71
71

71
71
71
71
71
71

71
71
71
71
71
71

33' 1.54'
33 0.14
33 59.64

32
33
33
33
32

.58.22
0.20
01.80
L2 89
.52.88

71 32 .50.34

32
32
32
32

48.16
47.66
40.04
40.32

71 33 45.06

71 33 45.34

71 32 48.11

71 32 44.05

71 33 48.36

71 32 51.68

71 32 53.15

71 32 53.53

71 33 08.76

32
32
32
32
32
32

32
32
32
33
33
33

50.81
52.18
53.22
53.48
55.41
54.31

49.75
49 94
50.70
56.50
58.14
51.40

71 32 53 32

71 33 53.72

71 32 49.18

71 33 51.61

71 33 49.54

71 32 .50.78

71 32 50.18

71 33 50.08

71 32 52.16

71 32 52.39

71 32 52.34

71 32 48.46

71 32 48.88

71 33 53.02

71 32 53.90

71 32 49.00

71 32 49.96

71 32 53.16

71 33 54.74

66

MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

OBSERVATIONS OF POLARIS. CLAMP WEST. NADIRS.

Date.

1900,

October 14.0

16.9

87.9

30.9

November 3.9

December 1.8

2.8

81.8

1901

February 10.6

14.6

June

October

December

June

July

18.8.
20.8.
24.8.

12.5.
15.5.
31.4.

1.3.

4.3.

21.3.

1899.

22.8.
25 8.
27.8.

22.8.

1900.

December 10.3.
15.3.

January
February

22.2.
10.1.

1901.

Sid. T.
H. M.

12
13
12
12

12
12
12

12
12

August

25.6

27.6

30.6 , ....

September

3.6

25.5

October

5.5

14.5

17.5

20.4

1899.

June 11.3

13.3

17.3

December 21.8

1900.

February 2-.6

15.6

25.6

March 11.6

26.5

12
12
12

12
12
12

12
12

26
07
30
34

12 24

27
42
37

30
32

16
20
26

26
14

00

31

26
40

47
35
18

28

20
24
3J

34
18

16
26
22
25

30
34

33
23

25

26
25

12 16

21
12
31

22
31

Nadirs.

71° 32' 55 46"

71 33 65.78

71 33 49.90

71 33 49.83

71 32 49.80

71
71
71

71
71

32
33
32

49 12
48.82
48.11

32 69.97

33 59.86

71° 33'
71 32
71 33

1.00"
59.14
59.32

71
71

71

32 58.37

33 65
33 .52.15

71 32 47.29
71 33 45.72
71 32 46 08

71 32 50 72

71 32 51.03

71 32 50.29

71 33 53.58

71

71

71

71
71

71
71
71
71

71
71

32 53 07

3! 52.63

32 52.48

32 47.74

32 53.56

32 54.38

33 54 77

32 56.36

33 50.28

32 49.64

32 50.57

71 32 51.46
71 32 58.08

71°

7r

71

33'
33
33

5.. 52"

1.04

1.01

71 32 40.35

71 32 51 90

71 32 55.80

71 32 60.06

71 32 49.67

71 32 55.90

Sid.

T.

H.

M.

14

18

14

15

14

08

14

25

14

07

14

21

14

17

14

45

14
14

14
14
14

14

14
14
14

14
14

32
36

19
12
16

15
05
20

18
00
18

2 17

2 22

2 30

2 17

2 23

2 21

2 23

15

22

18
25
09
09

00
20

07
30

10

08
08

16

30
18
30

24
08

Nadira

71°
71
71
71

33'
32
33
33

56.59"
56 76
50.34
50.07

71 32 50.53

71
71
71

71
71

32 49.07

32 49.30

33 48.14

32 59.63

33 58.58

71° 33' 0.70"

71 32 59.50

71 32 59.68

71 32 58.25

71 33 0.30

73 32 51.73

71 32 408

73 32 45.96

71 32 45.64

71
71
71

33 50.64
32 50 94
32 49.72

71 32 53.34

71 32 52.38

71 33 53.74

71 32 52,02

71 33 47.78

71 32 53.58

71 32 54.23

71 33 54.48

71 32 56.40

71 32 50.13

71

71

32 49.89
32 50.68

71 32 51.16
71 32 58.38

71°

71

71

33'
33
33

6.49"

0..52

0.49

71 32 40.00

71
71
71

71
71

32 51.25

32 65.48

32 49.66

32 60.73

32 55.53

HALL, ABERRATION CONSTANT.
OBSERVATIONS OF POLARIS. CLAMP WEST. NADIRS.

67

Date.

1900.

April 4.5

9.5

14.5

22.4

May 4.4

30.3

June 3.3

12.3

17.3

18.3

19.3

25.3

July 15.2

18.3

26.2.....

20.2

December 11.8

15.8

1901.
January 30.7

February 7.6

Sid.

T.

H.

M.

12

20

12

19

12

46

12

46

1»

50

12

36

12

30

12

32

12

26

12

47

12

36

12

41

12

22

12

44

12

31

12

33

12

40

12

22

12

42

12

27

.Vadirs.

71° 32' 49.23"

71 32 50.80

71 32 56.46

71 32 .56.46

71 32 53.88

71 32 53.71

71
71
71
71
71
71

71
71

32
32
32
32
32
32

53.46
49.50
52.92
52 00
51.86
50.83

71 32 55.70

71 32 52.28

71 32 54.11

71 32 53.72

32 49.66
32 48.24

71 32 52.20
71 32 56.53

Sid.

T.

H.

M.

14

15

13

14

14

26

40

13

17

15

11

16

19

11

21

12

39

50

58

26

Nadirs.

71'- 32'

71 32

71 32

71 32

71 32

71 32

71 32

71 32

71 32

71 32

71 32

71 32

71 32

71 32

71 32

71 32

71 32

71 32

49.32'
49.94
57.08
56.38

63.18
53.58

53.22
49.18
52 52
51. SI
52.26
51.35

54.26
52.27
53.37
53.75

49.76
49.00

71 32 51.39
71 32 56.66

68

MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

OBSERVATIONS OF POLARIS. CLAMP EAST.

No.

Date.

I.

S.

Vpp. Z.

Red.
1900.0.

1900.0
Z.

Ruu.

Per.
error

1
•>

1898.

April 25.9

26 9.

3
3

3

3-4

3

3

2-3

3

3

3
3
3
3
3
3

2-3

3

3 2

3

3

3

3

3-4

3
3

3

3

3

3

2-3

3

3

3

3

3-4

3

3

3

3

3

3-2

3

3

3

3

3

46°
46

46
46
46
46
46
46
46

46
46
46
46
46
46

46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46

46
46
46
46
46
46

46
46
46

46
46
46
45

46
46
46
46

46
46
46
46
46

46
46
46
46
46
46

46
46
46
46

40

46
46
46
46
46
4>5
46
46

29' 3.34"
29 3.15

29 0.25
28 59.38
28 57.68
28 56.19
28 56.10
28 56.11
28 54.71

28 55.06
28 54.88
28 54.16
28 53.06
28 52.52
28 53.43

28 53.89
28 53.38
28 52.47
28 54 23
28 55.12
28 54.10
28 55 03
28 55.12
28 55.42

28 57.24
28 59 53

28 58.66

29 01.44
29 02 38
29 02.23

29 12.44
29 14.25
29 14.96

29 16.78
29 19.54
29 25.01
29 26.01

29 29.56
29 30.88
29 31.36
29 35.00

29 39 69
29 39 62
29 41.11
29 41.19
29 42.50

29 43.51
29 43.73
29 43 57
29 44 05
29 43.19
29 42.84

29 41.60
29 41.65
29 41.73
29 39.39

39 38.03

29 28 50
29 26.53
29 21.08
29 23 31
29 22.53
29 20.70
29 21.90
29 21.21

+31.03"
+31.29

+33 84
+34 54
+36 35
+37 87
+38.03
^38.21
+38.96

+39 42
+39 78
-1-40.77
+40 86
+40.88
+40.92

+40.79
+40.70
+ 40.61
+40.44
+39.59
+39 48
+39.38
+39 06
+38.92

+37.18
+36.27
+35 28
+33.83
-. 32.21
+31.89

+22.27
-t2l.51

+20.80

+17.07
+ 15.94

+09.88
+08.47

+05.81

+04.19

+03.85

-0.41

—04 17

- 04 93
—05.45

- 05.91
-08.15

-08,33
—08.85
—09.21
-09.10
—09.09
-08.61

-07.83
—07.08
-06.49
—05.03

-03.72

+05.92
+07.52
+ 10.57
+ 11.19
+ 12.18
+ 12.80
+ 13 34
+ 13.59

34.37"
34.44

34.09
33.90
34.03
34.06
34.13
34 32
33.67

34.48
34.66
34.93
33.92
33.40
34.35

34.68
34 08
33.08
34.67
34.71
33.58
34.41
34 18
34.34

34.42
35.80
33.94
35.27
34.59
34.12

34 71

35.76
a5.76

33.85
35.48
34.89
34.48

35.37
35.07

35 21
34.59

35.52
34. 6U
35.66
35.28
34.35

35.18
34.88
34.36
34.95
34.10
34.23

33.77
34.57
35.24
34.36

34.31

34.12
34.05
34.65
34.50

34 71
33.50

35 24
34. to

-0.17"
-0.14

-0.09
- 0.13
-0.15
+0.04
+ 0.08
+0.03
+ 0.03

+0.03
+0.06
+0 02
+0.03
+0.02
+0.03

-0.02
-i-0 03
+0.02
+0.02
+0 05
40.02
+0.03
+0.03
+0.02

+0.04
+0.04
+ 0.00
+0.01
+0.03
+0.04

+0.07
+0.05
+0.08

+0.08
+0.08
+0.10
+0.09

+0.09
+0.11
+0.10
+0.10

+0.13
+0.13
+ 0.13
+0.13
+0.11

+ 0.15
+0.13
+0.12
+0.14
+0.13
+0.09

+0.14
-t-0.12
+0.11
+0.09

+0.11

+0.11
+ 0.10
+ 07
+0.10
+0.10
+0.10
+0.10
+0.10

+0.07"
-1-0.04

3
4

May 5.9

8.9

+0.06
4-0 05

■s

16 9

+0.03

>5

24.9

+0.04

25 9

+ 0.06

H

26.9

+0.10

9
10

30.8

June 2.8

+0.10
+0.03

tl

6.8

+0.01

1'

16.8

+0.01

n

19 8

+0.01

14

20.8

+0.00

15

22 8

- 0.01

16

July 5 8

+0.07

17

7.8

+0.04

18

10.7

+ 02

19

13.7

+ 0.00

T'O

20.7

+ 0.06

'1

21.7

+0.05

22
23
•74

•i2.7

•«.7

26.7

+0.04
+0.05
+0.06

■>5

Aufirust 4 7

3-4

4
3
3
3
3

3

3

3

3

3-2

3

3-2

+0.05

?R

9.7

+0.07

27
28
29

13.7

19.7

25.6

26.6

+0.08
+0.06
-0.03
+0.03

31

September 24. 5

26 5..

-0.07
-0.03

33
34

28.5

October 8 5..

3
3
3
3

3
3
3

2

i

3

3

3
3
3

-0.06
—0.05

35

11.5

-0.10

36
37

27 4

31.4

November 7.4

-O.ll
-0 08

-0.10

39

12.4

-0 11

40
41

13.4

26.3. .

-0.11
—0.10

4?>

December 10.3.

3

3

2-3

3

3-4

2-3

3

3

2-3

3

3

3
3

3

3

2-3

2-3

4-3

2-3

2

2-3

2-3

3

3

3
3

-0.08

43
44
45

13.3

15.3

17.3

—0.03
—0.02
+0.01

46

31 3

—0.10

47

1899.
January 2.3

-0 06

48
49

9.2

14.2

-0.04
—0 08

!>0

21.2

-0.03

51

24.2

—0.06

52

53

31.2

February 8.2

-0.10
-0.08

54

13.2

—0.05

55

16.2

-0.09

56

24.1

3

4-3

3
3
3-4

3

4-3

3
3
4

—0.01

57

March 1.1

-0.04

58

April 4.0

-0.11

59

9.0

—0.07

60

18.9

—0.14

61

20.9...;

—0.12

6a

23.9

3

3-4
3
2

3
3
3
3

-0.14

63

25.9

-O.IO

64

27.9

—0.15

65

28.9

—0.13

HALL, ABEFIRATION CONSTANT.
OBSERVATIONS OF POLARIS. CLAMP EAST.

69

NO.

66
67
68

69

70
71
72
73

74
75
76

77

78
79
80

81
82
83
84
85

Date.

1899

May 8.9.

10.9.

23.8.

24.8.

June 1.8.

3.8.

4.8.

29.7.

July 8.7.

10.7.
18.7.
22.7.

August 10.7.

12.7.
13.7,

September 1.6.
11.6.
13.5.
26.5.
30.5.

October i.5

I.

S.

3

3

4

3

3

3

3

3

2-3

2-3

3

3

3

3

3-4

3

4

3

2

2

3

3

3

3

3-4

3

4-3

3

3-4

3

3

2

3-4

3

4

3

4

3

4

3-4

2-3

2-3

A pp. Z.

46° 29' 17.97"

46 29 17.52

40 29 15.10

46 29 14.73

46 29 13.60

46 29 13.24

46 29 13.73

46 29 11.40

46 2'J 11.35

46 29 12.12

46 29 12.72

46 29 13.77

46 29 16.74

46 29 16.23

46 29 16.06

46
46
46
46
46

29
29
29
29
29

22.26
26.03
25.68
30.33
31.89

46 29 33.32

Rea.
1900.0.

1900.0
Z.

Run

+16.25"

+ 16.74
+ 19.60
+ 19.77

34.22"
34.26
34.70
34.. 50

+0.07"
+0.09
+0.07
+0.07

+ 20.94
+21.28
+21.44
+22.94

34.^4
34.52
35 17
34.34

+0.08
+0.08
+0.08
+0.05

+22.62
+22.50
+21.95
+21 .34

33.97
34.62
34.67
35.11

+0.06
-1-0.08
+0.06
+0.05

+18.12
+17.73
+17.51

34 86
33.96
33.57

+0.06
40.09
+0.07

+12.21
409.18
+08.43
+03.84
+02.30

34.47
35.21
34.11
34.17
34.19

+0.09
+0.11
+0.10
+0.11
+0.U

+01.61

34.93

+0.12

Per.

error

—0.15'
-0.12
-0.09
—0.12

+0.04
-0.11
-0.10
-0.05

-0.08
-0.12
—0.08
-0.06

-0.12
-0.13
—0.14

-0.11
—0.09
-O.Il
—0.11
-0.12

-0.10

70

MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

OBSERVATIONS OF POLARIS. CLAMP EAST. S. P.

Date.

April

May

June

July

1898.
26.4..

27.4..

5.4.

7.4.

9.4.
•23.4.
%.4.
30.3.

August

1.3.

3.3.
14.3.
17.3.
21.3.
22.3.

6.2.

9.2.
11.2.
12.2.
14.2.
21.2.
22.2.
29.2.

2.2.

4.2.
10.2.
25.1.
26.1.
27.1.

September 25.0.
27.0.
29.0.

October

November
December

January

February

March
April

9.0.
14.9.
24.9.
26.9.

2.9.
15.9.
24.8.

12.8.
13.8.
15.8.
28.8.

1899.

6.8.

9.7.
14.7.
26.7.
31.7.

6.7.
13.7.
24.6.
27.6.

23.5.

May

8.5.

9.5.
10.5.
20.4.
22.4.
35.4.

3.4.

5.4.

8.4.
24.4.
28.3.

I.

2-3

3-4

3

2

2-3

2-3

3

2-3

2-3

2-3

3

3

3

2

2 3

^4

3-2

3

3

3

3

3

3-4

3-4

3

2

2

3-4
3-4
3
3

2-3

3

2-3

3-4
3
3
3

3-4

4
4

4-3
3-2
2-3
4

3-1

3

3

3

3-4

3

2-3

2-3

3

2-3

3

2
3
2
2-3

2
3

2
2

3
2

2-3
3

3

2-3

2 3

3-2

3

3

3

3

3

3-4

3-4

3

2-3

3

A pp. Z. s. p.

3
3

2-3

3

2-3

3-4
3
3
3

3
2
3
3

3
3
2-3

4

3-4

3
2
3
3
3

2-3
2

2

48° 57'
48 57

48

48
48
48
48
48

48
48
48
48

48
48

57
57
57
57

57
57

57
57
57
57
57
57

12.94"
12.46

15.46
16.02
15 95
20.25
19 74
20.53

20.73
21.72
21 87
22.79
22.74
23.51

48 57 22.59

48 57 21.85

48 57 22.49

48 57 22.76

48 57 21.72

48 57 21.13

48 57 20.93

48 57 19.45

48
48
48
48
48
48

57
57
57
57
57
57

18.85
18.47
17.16
13.40
13.35
13.07

48 .57 04.10
48 57 02.71
48 57 02.08

3 48 56 57.77

3 48 56 55.96

48 .56 53.08

48 56 50,52

48 56 49.62

48 58 44.63

48 56 41.27

48 56 35.73

48 56 33.90

48 56 36.78

48 .56 34.87

48 56 31.83

48 56 32.65

48 58 32.86

48 56 31.99

48 56 33.31

48 56-32.78

48 56 34.83

48 56 37.11

48 56 38.:«)

48 56 44.09

48
48
48
48
48
48

56
56
56
56
56
56

49.96
50.19
49 97
53.62
53.25
54.81

48 56 57.25

48 56 57.32

48 56 57.9.1

48 .57 02.07

48 .57 02.67

Red

19U0.0.

-31.16"
-31.42

-33.73
-34.20
—34.62
-37.64
—37.95
—38.86

—39.21
-39.47
-40.57
—40.79
—40.89
-40.91

-40.76
—40.66
-40.59
—40.55
—40.39
—39.54
-39.43
-38.47

—37.63
-37.26
-36.16
—32 38
-32.05
—31.72

—22.07
—21.33
—20.63

— 16 88
—14 72
-10.75
—10.05

—07.49
-02.92
—00.02

-1-04.80
-f 05 06

-f05.57
-(-07.81

-f08.62
-f-08.90
-f09.22
-t-09.02
-{-08.55,

4-07.97
-f 06.99
-f 04 91
4-04.13

-02.35

-07.35
-07.69
—08.04
— 11.13
—11.69
-12.66

-14.70
— 15.26
-16.11
—19.69
-20.25

Z.

1900.0.

56'
56

56
56
56
56
.56
56

56
56
56
56
.56
56

56
.56
56
56
56
56
56
56

56
56
56
56
56
56

56
56
56

56
56
56
56

56
56
56

56
56
56
56

JO

56
56
56
56

56
56
56
56

56
56
56
56

56
.56

56
56
56
56
58

41.78'
41.04

41.73
41.82
41.33
42.61
41.79
41.67

41.52

42 25
41.30
42.00
41 85
42.60

41.83
41.19
41.90
42.21
41.33
41.59
41.50
40.98

41.22
41.21
41.00
41.02
41.30
41.35

42.03
41.38
41.45

40.89
41.24
42.33
40.47

42.13
41.71
41.25

40.53
41.96
42.35

42.68

40.45
41.55
42.08
41 01
41.fc6

40.75
41.82
42.02
42.43

56 41.74

42.61
42.. 50
41.93
42. 59
41. .56
42.15

42.55
42.06
41.82
42.38
42.42

Run.

—0.18'
- 0.08

-0.12
-0.15
-0.11
-f-0.01
4-0.02
4-0.01

4-0.01
4-0 00
4-0.05
4-0.01
4-0.01
4-0.01

4-0.03
4-0.02
4001
4-0.01
4-0.01
4-0.02
4-0.02
4^0.02

4-6.01
+0.01
+0. 02
4-0.00
-0.01
4-0.01

—0.04
—0.03
-0.09

-0.05
-0.06
^0.12
-0.07

-0.06
-0.11
-0.11

-0.14
-0.13
—0.12
-0 12

—0.13
-0.11
-0.09
-0.03
-0.14

-0.13
—0.13
—0.13
-0.13

-0.08

-0.08
-0.08
-0.04
-0.07
—0.09
-0.05

-0.03
-0 05
-0.08
-0.03
-0.06

Per.
error.

— o.or

-0.01

-0.00
4-0.01
-tO.Ol
40.04
+0.02
+0.07

+0.03
+0.03
+0.02
-0.01
—0.02
-0.01

+0.05
+0.04
4-0.03
+0.02
+0.00
+0.04
+0.05
+0.03

4-0.07
4-0.04
+0.10
-0.02
+0.06
+0.04

-0.06
-0.05
-0.02

—0.08
—0.07
— O.U
-0.10

— O.05
-0.05
—0.01

4-0.03
+0.02
+0.09
—0.01

—0.09
—0.02
—0.11
—0.08
-0.07

+0.01
-0.09
-0.08
-O.OI

—0.19

-0.06
—0.13
-0.16
-0.13
—0.12
—0.09

+0.04
—0.14
-0.17
-0.11
-0.16

HALL, ABERRATION CONSTANT.
OBSERVATIONS OF POLARIS. CLAMP EAST. S. P.

71

No.

Date.

189».

64 June 2.3

65 July 6.2

66 . 11.2

67 12.2

68 22.2

August 2.2

70 7.2

71 12.2

72 September 3.1

73 4.1

74 9.1

75 11.1

76 13.1

77 16.1

I

S.

8

3

2

2-3

2

2-3

2-3

2 3

2

3

3 4

3-4

2-3

2-3

3

3

3-4

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3 4

4

3

App. Z. s. p.

48" 57' 04.20"

48 57 05.12

48 57 05.00

48 57 05.05

48 57 02.83

48 57 00.88

48 57 00.16

48 66 59.29

48 56 .53.01

48 56 52.53

48 56 51 50

48 56 50 66

48 56 49.38

48 56 49.85

Red.
1900.0.

—21.03"

—22.82
—22.47

- 23.43
—21.42

—19.79
-18.75
—17.84

-11.74
-11.45

— 10 03
—09.36
—08.62
-07.50

Z.
1900.0.

56' 43.17"

56
56
56
66

56
56
56

56
56
56
56
56
56

42.30
42.53
42.62
41.41

41.09
41.41
41.45

41.27
41.08
41. 4r
41.30
40.76
42.35

Run.

—0.03"

-0.05
—0.03
—0.03
-0.02

—0.02
—0.01
-0.04

-O.06
-0.06
-0.06
-0.04
-0.01
—0.07

Per.
error.

-0.06"

-0.16
-0.09
-0.08
-0.06

-0.06
—0.08
-0.10

-0.12
-0.14
- 0.14
-0.14
-0.13
-0.13

OBSERVATIONS OF POLARIS. CLAMP EAST. R.

No.

5

6
7

8'

9
(0
11

12
13
14
15
16

17
18
19

20
21
22

23

24
25

Date.

August

1898.

1.7.,
14.7.
20.6..

OctoDer 15.5.

November

December

January

2.4.

3.4.
19.4.
27.3.

18.3.
24.3.
37.3.

1899.
1.3...

7.2..
10.2..
19.2..
29.2..

July

August

17.7.
21.7.
31.7.

1.7.
5.7.
6.7.

September 2.6.
12.6.
14.5.

I.

3

2-3

3

3
3

2-3
2-3
3-4

3

3-2
3
3

3

4
4

3

3-4

4

S.

3
3

2-3
2-3
3-4

3
3
3
3

3
3
3-4

2
3
3

App. Z. R.

133° 30' 60.53"
133 30 57.12
133 30 55.67

133 30 37.82

133
133
133
133

30
30
30
30

30.03
29.69
24.99
31.55

133 30 15.48
133 30 15.11
133 30 14.33

133 30 12.92

133 30 13.65

133 30 12.93

133 30 li.30

133 30 13.31

133 30 45.14

133 30 43.80

133 30 43.56

133 30 42.22

133 30 41.12

133 30 41.64

133 30 33.65

133 30 33.34

133 30 30.73

Red.
19UO.0.

—37.73"

-35.03

-33.60

—14.54

-07.68
—07.29
-01.65
+00.71

-1-06.11
-t-07.01
-1-07.55

-f08.25
-1-08.66
-1-08.94
+09.14
+08.83

-22.08
—21.50
-20.09

-19.90
—19.05
—18.84

-11.90

-08.81
-08.05

Z.

1930.0.

22.80"

22.10

22.07

33.28

22.35
22.30
23.34

22.26

21.59
28.15
21.78

21.17
32.31
21.76
21.44
22.14

23.06
22.30
23.47

22.32
22.07

22.80

31 .65
23 53

32.68

Run.

-0.03"

—0.04

-0.06

-0.09

-0.11
-0.10
-0.13
-0.13

-0.16
-0.13
—0.15

-0.13
-0.14
—0.15
—0.15
—0.13

-0.08
—0.08
-0.09

—0.08
-0.09
-0.07

—0.07
-0.10
-0.09

Per.
error.

—0.04"

—0.03

-O.04

-0.06

+0.02
+ 0.01
+0.02
—0.05

+0.06
+0.01
-0.02

-0.07
-0.05
-0.06
-0.03
—0.03

-0.11
-0.11
-0.10

-0.10
-0.12
—0.12

—0.07
-0.12
-0.12

72

MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

OBSERVATIONS OF POLARIS. CLAMP EAST. S. P. K.

No.

5

6

7
8

9
10

11
12
13
14
15
16
17

18
19

.20
21
32
23

24

Date.

May

December

January

February

April

May

June

Julj-

1898.
13.4.
17.4.

27.8.
31.8.

1899.
2.8.
15.7.
18.7.
21.7.

16.7.
28.6.

3.5...

4.5...
13.5...
14.5...
17.4...
26.4...
28.4...

8.4.
28.3.

26.3.
27.3.
29.3.
30.3.

1.3.

I.

2-3
3

2-3
3

2-3
2-3

2 3
3

3-2

2
3

2
2
2-3

App. Z. s. p. R.

131° 02' 38.89"
131 02 38.37

131

131
131
131
131
131
131
131

131
131

03 22.39
03 22.74

131 03 22.45

131 03 23.63

131 03 23.87

131 03 23.70

131 03 20.16

131 03 18.74

03 08.. 57

03 08.39

03 05.74

03 06.01

03 04.93

03 01.89

03 01.08

02 58.39
02 55.06

131 02 51.71

131 03 61.53

131 02 52.02

131 02 51.49

131 02 50.56

Red.

1900.0.

-1-35.46"
4-36.47

—07.64

-08.20

—08.36
—09.22
—09.16
-09.09

—06.40
-03.86

+05.78
-t-06.06
-i-09.01
-f-09.30
-1-10.12
+12.95
+13.47

+16.11
+20.25

+22.87
+22.88
+23.92
+22.95

+22.97

1900.0.

z.

03' 14.35"

03 14.84

03 14.75

03 14.64

03 14.09

03 14.41

03 14.71

03 14.61

03 13. T6

03 14.88

03
03
03
03
03
03
03

14.35
14.45
14.75
15.31
15.05
14.84
14.55

03 14.50

03 15.31

03 14.68

03 14.41

03 14.94

03 14.44

Run.

-0.33"
-0.01

+0.12
-)-0.11

+0.10

+0.12
+0.12
+0.13

+0.11
+0.12

-1-0.08
-f0.08
+0.05

+0.04
+0.08
+0.05

+0.02
+0.00

+0.02
—0.09
+0.03
+0 02

03 13.53 ; +0.00

■Per.

error

— o.or

—0.00

-0.10
—0.10

-0.11
-0.11
-0.11
—0.06

-0.14
—0.10

-0.10
-0.08
-0.04
-0.00
-0.01
—0.02
—0.09

+0.01
-fl.OO

-^.03
-0.01
-0.03
—0.03

-0.01

HALL, AliEFIIiATION CONSTANT.

78

OHSKFiVATIONS OF POLARIS. CLAMP WKST

No.

Date.

I.

2-3
3

1
S.

App

. Z.

Red.
1900.0.

1900 0.
Z.

1
Kun.

Per
error.

1
9,

1899.

June 10.8

15.8

2-3
3

46°

46

46

46
46
46
46

46

46
46

46

46
46
46
46

46
46
46
4C
46

46
46
46

40
46

40
46
46
46
46
46
46

46
46

46
46
46
46
46

46
46
46
46
46

46

46
46
46
46
46
46

46
46
46

29'
29
29

29
29
29
29

29

30
30
30

30
30
30
30

30
30
30
30
30

30

30
29
29
29

29
29
29
29
29
29
29

29
29

29
29
29
29
29

29
29
29
29
29

29
29
29
29
29
29
29

29
29
29

17.89"
16.42

16.94

38.57
40.30
45.58
45.71

57.30

02.83
02.39
03.39

06.27
06.04
03.02
06.69

05.87
04.59
05.09
05.17
02.96

00.99
00.03
54.12
54.23
52.39

51.97
50.52
50.65
46.10
44.93
44.45
42.80

41.77
37.83

35.41
34.98
.34.59
34.48
34.79

33.78
33.61
34.15
34.82
34.56

37.06
37.83
38.07
39.08
39.49
40.56
42.58

50.43
.52.35
54.28

+22.03"

-f22.51
-P22.62

+00.61
-00.92
—05.88
-06.28

—18.14

—23.47
—23.92
—24.97'

-26.79
—26.72
-26.62
—26.48

-26.29
-25 28
-25.17
-25.06
-23.. 56

—21.26
-20.98
—15.33
-15.07

—12.88

-12.53

—11.58
—10.73
-06.88
-04.89
—03.94
-03.39

-02.43
+01.36

+04.92
+05.01
+05.06
+05.19
+05.35

+05.21
4-05.11
+ 04.85
+04.34
-1-03.70

-H)2.40
+02.00
+01.78
+00.03
—00.18
-00.92
-04.42

-11.47
—13.44
-14.20

29-

29
29

29
29
29
29

29

29
29
29

29
29
29
29

29
29
29
29
29

29
29
29
29
29

29
29
29
29
29
29
29

29

29

29

29
29
29
29

29
29
29
29
29

29
29
29
29
29
29
29

29

29
29

39.92"

38.93

39.56

39.18
39.38
39.70
39.43

39.16

39.36
38.47
38.42

39.48
39.32
39.40
40.21

39.58
39.31
39.92
40.11
39.40

39.73
39.05
38.79
39.16
39.51

39.44
38.94
39.92
39.24
40.04
40.51
39.47

39.34
.39.19

40.33
39 99
39.65
39.67
40.14

38.99
38.72
39.00
39.16
38.26

39.46
39.83
39.85
39 11
39.31
39.64
38.16

38.96
38.91
40.08

-i-0.09
+0.06
+0.10

+0.13
-1-0.12
+0.14
+0.15

+0.18

+0.19
+0.16
+0.17

+0.22

+0.17
+0.18
+0-16

+0.19
-r0.19
+ 0.19
+0.17

+0.17

+0.15
-H).16
-t0.15
+0.15
+0.14

+0.14
-,0.14
+0.16
+0.14
+0.14
+0.14
+0.13

4-0.12
4-0.11

+0. 12
+0.10
-+0.10
+0.11
+0.12

+0.12
+0.10
+0.12
+0.11
+0.12

+0.11
+0.14
+0.12
-t-0.12
+0.11
+0.13
-f-0.13

+0.15
+0.16
+0.16

+0.00
+0.18

s

16 8

+0.18

4

October 5.5

4
3

3-4
3

3

2
3
2-3

2-3
2-3
3-4
2-3

•>

4
3

4

3
3
3-4

4
3 4

1-4

3-4
4

2-4
3 2
3

2

3
3
3
3

2

2
3
2-3

2-3
2
3
2-3

2-3
4
3
2

3 4

3
3

V

3

3

3-4

3-4

4

3

3-2

2-3

»1

+0.04

5

9.5

-0.02

fi

22.4

-0.02

7

23.4

+0.03

8

November 26 3

+0.03

9

December 17.3

+0.02

10

19.3

-0.03

11

26.3

40.02

1?:

1900.
Januarv 21.3

+0.06

13
14

22.2

24.2

+0.06
+ 0.04

15

29.2

-1-0.09

16

February 1.2

+0.10

17

g.i

-0.10

18

10.2

--0.08

19

11.2

19.1

+0.07
-t-0.00

SI

March 2.1

+ 0.06

22

3.1

--0.02

23
24

23.0

24.0

+0.02
+0.02

25

31.0

--0.03

!?fi

April 1.0

+0.01

27

4.0

--0.03

2fl

7.0

-1-0.04

29
30
31

18.9

25.9

28.9

+0.01
4-0.02
+0.02

32
33

30.9................

Mav 4.9

+0,M
+0.02

34

•,'0.8

-0.02

35

June 12.8

3
3
2

2
2-3

3

3

3

3-4

3

3
3
3
4
4

3

3

2-3

2-3

2-3

3

3 •
3

3-4
3

3

1-2

2

4

4

—0.04

36

14.8

—0.08

37

IB. 8..

-0.03

38

17.8.

—0.15

30

19.8

—0.16

40

July 11.7

-0.21

41

12.7

—0.21

43

15.7 .'

—0.25

43

21.7

• -0.21

44

25.7

—0.23

45

August 3.7

-0.36

46

-0 16

47

6.7

-0.26

48

14.7

-0.29

49

50

15.7

18.6

-0.30
-0.24

51
55^

31.6.

September 21.6

3 4

4
4
3

3

3
3

—0.24
—0.16

"i^

27 5 ;

-0.18

54

29.5

-0.16

10

74

MICHIGAN ACADKMY OP SCIENCE.

OBSERVATIONS OF POLARIS CLAMP WEST.

No.

55
56
57
58

59

60
61

62
63

64

Date.

1900.

October 3.5.

9.5.

12.5.

19.4.

November 26.4.

December 2.3

13.3.

1901.

January 20.2

30.2.

February 7.2.

I.

S.

2-3

2

3

3

2 3

2-3

2-3

2-3

2-3

2-3

2

2

3

3

3

3

3

3

2-3

2-3

App

.Z.

Red. i
1900.0.

46°

29'

55.57"

-15.79"

46

29

58.85

-17 93

46

29

58.75

—19.08

46

30

01.63

—21.82

46

30

14.64

—35.10

46

30

16.54

-36.76

46

30

18.93

-39.61

46

30

23.86

-43.83

46

30

22.39

-43.32

46

30

21.96

-42.57

1900.0.
Z.

29' 39.78"

29 40.92

29 39.67

29 39.87

29 39.54

29
29

29
29

39.79
39.32

40.03
39.07

29 39.39

Run.

-i-0.15"
-f0.17
+0 16
-1-0.16

-f0.19

-H).20
+0.20

+0.23
+0.22

+0.22

Per.
error.

-0.17'
—0.16
-0.16
—0.05

-0.04

-0.03
+0.00

-f0.02
+0.36

-0.17

OBSERVATIONS OF POLARIS. CLAMP WEST. S. P.

No.

to

U
12
13

14
15
16
17
18

19
20
21
22

23
21
25
26
27
28

29
30
31
32
33
34

Date.

June

October

1899.
12.3.
16.3.
23.3.

11.9.
17.9.
20.9.
23.9.
24.9.

November 29.8.

December

January

February

Marcti

April

5.8.

7.8.
19.8.
20.8.

1900.
21.7.

22.7.
27 7.
28.7-
30.7.

9.6.
10.6.
13.6.
17.6.

1.6.

2.6.
19.6.
23.5.
30.5.
31.5.

3.5.

9.5.
10.5.
25.4.
27.4.
30.4.

I.

2

2 3
2-3

3

3-4

2-3

3

3

3

2

3-2
3

3

3 4
3

3-4
3 4

3
4
3-4

3
2-3

3

3
3

4
2-3

S.

2
2-3

3

3-4
2-3
3

3

3

3-2

3

3

3

3

3-4

3-4

3
4
.3-4

2-3
2-3

3
3-4

4
2-3

App. Z. S P.

48"

48

48

48
48
48
48
48

57' 09.77"
57 10.06
57 09.70

56
56
56
56
56

48
48
48
48

44.75
41.68
40.92
40.. 59
39.93

48 56 27.36

56
56
56
56

48 56

48 56

48 56

48 56

48 56

48 56

48 56

48 56

48 56

48 .56

48 56

48 58

48 56

48 66

48 56

48 56

48 56

48 56

48 56

48 46

48 56

25.17
24.82
21.82
21.64

19.74
20.14
19.36
19.35
19.56

20.07
22.09
21.79
22.99

24.94
!;;5.60
30.39
31.74
33.24
33.76

35.19
36.08
36.52
10.96
42.45
42.95

Red.

1900 0.

-22 14"
—22.56

—22.89

+01.96
+04.20
+05.28
+0H.48
+06.89

+19.05

+20.83
+21.38
+24.03
+24.22

+26.75
+26.69
+26.52
+26.49
+26.40

+25.23
+25.12

+21.71
+23.89

+21.40
+21.13
+ 16.33
+ 15.20
+ 13.05
+12.70

+11.74
+09.98
+0i*.66
+05.05
-f 04.41
+03.52

1900.0.
Z.

56'
56
56

.56
56
56
56
56

56
56
56
56

56
56
56
56
56

56
.56
56
56
56
56

56
56

56
56

47.63"
47 50
46.81

46.71

45.88
46.20
47.07
46.82

56 46.41

46.00
46.20
45.85
45.86

46.49
46 83
45.88
45.84
45.96

56 45.90

56 47.21

56 46.50

56 46.88

46.34

46.79
46.72
46.94
46.29
46.46

46.9.J
47.06
56 47.18
56 46.01
46.86
46.47

Run.

—0.01"

-0.02

-0.03

—0.06
-0.09
-0.07
-0.09
-0.09

—0.11

-0.11
—0.12
—0.12
-0.14

-0.17
-0.14
-0.13
—0.15
-0.18

-0.16
—0.14
-0.15
—0.15

-0.14
-0.13
—0.10
-0.10
—0.1 1
-0.10

—0.10
—0.14
-0.10
-0.10
-0.08
-0.10

Per.
error.

—0.00"

+0.02

+0.01

+0.08
+0.08
+0.00
+0.16
+0.16

+0.13

+0.11
+0.05
-0.02
+0.00

-H).03
+0.03
+0.03

+0.02
+0.06

+0.04
+0.06
+0.04
-0.11

+0.06
+0.06
+0.13
+0.04
+0.12
+0.12

+0.05
+0.02
i-0.04
+0.12
-f0.09
+0.16

HALL, ABEURATION CONSTANT,
OBSERVATIONS OF POLARIS. CLAMP WEST. S. P.

76

So.

35

37
38
3tf

10
41
42
43
44
45

46
47
48
49

50
51
52
53

54
55
56
57

58

59
60
61

62

63

Date.

May

June

July

August

1900.

6.4.

26.3.

12.3.
18.3.
28.3.

4.3

5.2.

9.2.

13.2.

21.2.

28.2.

7.2.
10.2.
24.1.
29.1.

September 6.1.
12.1.
14.1.
30.0.

October

14.0.
16.9.
27.9.
30.9.

November 3.9.

December

February

1.8.

2.8.

21.8.

1901.
10.6.
14.6.

I.

2-3
2-3

2-3

2-3

2-3

2-3

2

3
3

2-3
3

3

3-4
2-3
2-3

2-3

2-3

2

2-3

3
3-4

S.

2-3
2

2-3
2-3

2-3
2-3
2

2-3

2

3
3

2-3
3

3

3-4
2-3
2-3

2-3

2-3

2

2-3

App. Z. S. P.

48'' 56'
48 56

44.29'
49.08

48 56 51.82
48 56 52.. 52
48 56 52.14

48 56

48 56

48 56

48 56

48 56

48 56

48 56

48 56

48 56

48 56

48 56

48 56

48 56

48 56

48 56

48 56

48 56

48 56

52.. 59
.53.28
52 21
52 .52
51.24
51.26

48.89
47.98
44.89
43.88

41.44
38.03
38.34
32.69

27.99
25.53
21 63
21.50

48 56 19.25

48 56
48 56
48 56

10.03
10.59

05.82

48 56 03.89
48 58 05.26

Red.
1900.0.

-f 02.04'
-02.54

-04.89
—05 22
—05.57

-05.59
—05.60
-05.45
-05.06
—04.41
-03.30

—01 66

00.96

-1-02.48

-H03.72

-1-06.26
-J-08 09
4-08.76
-L14.40

-f 19 69
+20.90
-1-24.5)2
-1-26.10

-f27.52

-f36.63
-f-36.88
•f41.25

4-41.99
4-41.44

1900.0.
Z.

.56'
56

56
5b
56

56
56
56
56
56
56

56
56
56
56

46
.56
56
56

.56

56
56
56

56

56
56

46.33'
46.54

46.93
47 30
46.57

47.00
47.68
46.76
47.46
46.83
47.96

47.23
47.02
47.37
47.60

47.70
46.12
47.09
47.09

47.68
46.43
46.55

47.60

56 46.77

46.66
47.47
47.07

56 45.88
56 46.70

Run.

- 0.07"
-0.06

-0.10
-0.08
-0.06

-0 05
—0 03
—0.03
—0 05
-0.06
-0.04

-0.03
—0.06
—0.05
-0 06

-0.09
-0.07
-0.07

- 0.09

- 0.10
-0.12
—0.12
-0.13

-0.14

-0.15
-0.16
-0.18

-0.20
0.19

Per.
error.

4-0.15"
4-0.07

—0.01
-0 09
—0.16

-0.21
-0.21
—0 20
-0.00
—0.17
-0.25

-0.05
—0.04
—0.18
—0.31

-0.06
-0.06
—0.14
—0.15

-0.24
-0.16
- 13
-0.08

-0.12

-0.23
-0.23
—0.17

-0.22
0.22

76

MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.
OBSERVATIONS OF POLARIS. CLAMP WEST. R.

No.

Date.

1899.

1 June 18.8

2 20.8

3 24.8

4 October 12.5

5 15.5

6 31.4

7 December 1.3

8 4.3

9 21.3

1900.

10 June 22.8

11 25.8

12 27.8

13 July 22,7

V

14 August 25.6

15 27.6

16 30.6

17 September 3.6

18 25.5

19 October 5.5

20 14.5

21 17.5

22 20.4

23 December 10.3

24 15.3

1901.

26 January 22.2

26 February 10. 1,

I.

S.

2-3

2-3

3

2-3

3

3

2

2

3-4

3-4

2-3

2-3

3

2-3

o

o

2-3

3

2

2

2-3

2-3

2

2

3

3

4

4

2-3

2-3

2-3

2-3

3

3

3

2

3

3

3

3

3

2-3

2-3

2-3

2

2

2-3

2 3

3

3

2

2

App.Z. R I ,Ke^^

133= 30' 44.78"
133 30 45.26
133 30 4.1.57

22.79"
-23.89
-23.88

133 30 19.92 -F02.18

133 30 18.45 -f 03.32

133 30 13.16 j -F09.24

133 30 03.18 -f 19 47

133 30 01.85 -f20.39

133 29 57.82 -^-24. 31

133 30 27.82

133 30 27.19

133 30 27.56

133 30 26.75

133 30 19.78

133 30 19.63

133 30 19.12

133 30 18.28

133 30 09.38

133 30 07.16

133 30 03.09

133 30 01.63

133 30 00.73

133 29 42.27

138 29 41.61

133 29 38.46
133 29 41.06

-05.56
—05.62
-05.58

-04.20

-f02.87
-f03.34

-f04.13

-t-05.41
-fl2.75

-fl6.54

-1-19.89
-1-21.09
+22.16

-^38.95
-f-39.97

+43.31
+42.06

1900.0
Z

30'
30
30

30
30
30

30

30
30

21.99"

22.37

22.69

21.80
21.77
22.46

22.65
22.24
22.13

30 22.26

30 21.57

30 21.96

30 22.55

30
39

30

30
30

22.65
22.97
23.35

23.69
22.13

30 23.70

30 22.98

30 22.72

30 22.89

30 21.22

30 21.58

30 22.27
30 23.12

Itun.

-0.06"

-0.02

-0.09

-0.14

0.07

-0.16

-0.19
-0.14
—0.19

—0.10
—0.12
—0.09

-0.13

-0.14
-0.13
-0.13

—0.13
-0.15

—0.17
-0.18
—0.16
—0.15

-0.22
—0.20

-0.23
-0.20

Per.
error

+0 OO"
+0.12

+o.a'>

+0.07
-fO.05
+0.05

+0.06
+0.04
+0.06

—0.13
-0.12
-0.16

-0.12

-0.10
—0.14
-0.12

-0.00
-0.15

-0.17
-0.18
-0.16
-0.15

-0.12
-0.06

-0.09
-0.21

HALL, ABKKRATION CONSTANT.
OBSERVATIONS OP POLARIS. CLAMP WKST. S. P. R.

77

No.

Date.

I

3

S.
3

Apy

.S. P.

Z.
R.

Red.
1900.0.

1900.0.
7..

Run.

Per.
error.

1
o

June

December
February

March
April

May
June

July

December

January
February

1899.

11.3

13 3

131" 02'
131 02
131 02

131 03

131 03
131 03
131 03

131 03
131 03

131 03
131 03
131 03
131 03

131 03
131 03

131 03
131 03
131 03
131 03
131 03
131 03

131 03
131 ('3
131 03

131 03
131 03

131 03
131 03

53.24"

52.64

52.51

39.54

41.20
39.91
38.83

34.90
30.15

26.83
25.16
33 16

21.88

19.05
11.48

11 99
10.28
10.37
10 33
09.96
08.80

10.27
11.11
11.46

55.69
56.00

59.59
59.43

-1-32 06"
f 22.24
+22.67

-24.40

-26.11
-24 33
-22.32

-18.81

— 14.36

—11.44

- 09.98
-08 26
-05.95

-02.55
-f03.15

-f-03.68
-^04. 89
-f-05.15
405.23
-1-05.31
-f-05.62

404 69
+03 78
+03.61

-39.30
— 40.U6

-43.31

-42.48

03'
03
03

03

03
03
03

03
03

03
03
03
03

03
03

03
03
03
03
03
03

03
03
03

03
03

03
03

15.30"

14.88

15.18

15.14

15.09
15.58
16.61

16.09
15.79

15.39
15.18
14.90
15.93

16.50
14.63

15.67
15.17
15.53
15.55
15.27
14.42

14.96
14.89
15.07

16.39
15.94

16.28
16.94

+0.03"

+0.05

+0.00

+0.15

+0.13
+0.14
+0.14

+0.13
+0.11

+0.12
+0.09
+0.08
+0.08

+ 0.08
-L0.07

+0.08
+0 05
+0.07
+0.04
+0.07
+0.05

#

+0.06
+0.06
+0.04

+0.17
+0.18

+0.19
+0.19

+0.04"
+0.07

s

17.3

2
2-3

2-3

1

2-3
2

2
2-3

3
3

2-3
2

+0.06

4

5

6

21.8

1900.

2.6

15.6

+0.03

4-0.01
-0.00

7

8

25.6

11.6

+0.03
+0.02

9

26 5

+0.04

10

4.5

+0.07

11

9.5

3

3-4

+0.12

1'

14.5

+0.06

n

32.4

2-3

2-3
2

2-3
2-3
2-3
2-3

1

2-3
2

2-3

2-3
1-2

2 3

3-3

2-3

2-3

2

2

2-3
2-3

+0.02

14

4.4

40 07

15

30.3

3.3

- 0.05
+0.00

17

12.3

+0.01

1R

17.3

—0.15

t<)

18.3

—0.09

•'0

19.3

—0.15

21

25.3

18.3

-0.14
-0.16

?^

35.2

- 0.16

"4

26.2

+0.04

"5

H.8

2-3
2-3

3
3

2 3
2-3

3

3

—0.03

26

27
9H

15.8

1901.

30.7

7.6

+0.03

+0.21
—0.22

18. Observation Equations.

For the observations as given in the preceding section observation
equations can be wrriten of the form

V = 80 - 8' + A 8 + A k. b sin ( O + B) f- TT b cos ( O + B).

8' is the observed declination, computed from the zenith distance with
thelatitude + 42" 16' 48.0".

80 is the declination of the Berliner Jahrbuch.

Akisthe correction to the aberration constant, 20.445 ", and rr is the
parallax. The auxiliary quantities b and B are formed as follows:
b sin B = sin a sin 8 cos £ - cos 8 sin £ .
b cos B = - cos a sin 8.

With the term a 8 would be included all constant corrections.

78

MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCP:.

OBSERVATION EQUATIONS. POLARIS, CLAMP EAST.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5

6.
7
8.
9.
10.

11.
12.
13
14.
15.

16.
17.
18.
19.
20.

21.
22.
23.
24.
25.

26.
27.
28.
29.
30.

3t.
32
33.
34.
35.

36.
37.

38.
39.
40.

41.
43.
43.
44.
45.

46.
47.
48.
49.
60.

51.
52.
53.
54.
55.

56.
57.
58.
59.
60.

61.
62.
63.
64.
65.

A&.

+

+

+

b.
sin(0+B).

-0.306
-0.321
-0.459
-0 502
—0.611

-0.710
—0.721
—0.731
-0.774
—0.803

- 0.841
-0.914
—0.932
-0.937
-0.947

—0.984
—0.986
-0.987
—0.985
-0.971

- 0.968

- 0.965

- 0.9.i3
— 0.1*49
—0.897

-0 860
—0.827
—0.768
—0.702
-0.690

-0 275
-0.243
-0 209
—0.042
+0.010

+0.279
40 344
+0.454
+0.529
+0.543

+0.716
+0.8*^0
40 885
+0.900
+0 911

+0.977
+0.981
+ 0.987
+0.981
+0.960

+0.947
+0.906
+0.812
+0.793
+0.761

+ 666
+0.600
+0.064
+0.020
-0.187

—0.219
-0 261
—0.300
—0 333
—0.348

b.
cos{e+B)

—0.939

- 0.934
-0.874
-0.8.50
-0.775

—0 686
—0.674
-0.662
—0.613
—0.572

—0 517

- 0.372
—0.326
-0.310

—0.278

—0 069
-0.037
+0.012
+0 061
+0.176

+0.191
+0 207
40 256
+0.271
+0.410

+0.484
+0.540
+0.620
+0.694
+0.706

+0.948
+0.956
+0 964
+0.986
+0.987

+0 947
+0.926
+0 877
+0.833
+0.824

+0 679
+0 484
+0.437
+0.406
+0.382

+0.137
+0.105
—0.018
—(1.106
-0.226

-0.276
—0.392
—0.514
-0 587
—0.628

—0.719
-0.785
—0.985
-0.987
-0.969

-0.962
-0.949
—0.940
— 0.9TO
—0.924

nv

+0 36"

40.29

+0.57

+0.81

+0.72

+0.49
+0.36
40 18
+0.83
+0.09

-0.10
-0.33

+0 67
+ 1.21
+0.26

-O.lO
+0.48
+ 1 51
-0.06
—0.19

+0.98
+0.15
+0.37
+0.21
+0.12

— 1.28
+0.61
—0.74
+0.04
+0.44

-0.08
—1.15
-1.15
+0.75
-0.83

-0.32
+0.14
-0.73
-0.44
-0.57

+0.04
—0.94
-0.16
-1.14
-0.79

+0.27

- 0.64
—0.34
+0.23
-0.43

+0.45
+ 0.41
+0.80
-0 01
-0.63

+0.19
+0.25
+0.21
+0.55
+0.05

+0.15
-0.04
+1.13
—0.56
-0.14

+0.039'
—0.033
+0 229
+0.465
+0.369

+0.138
+0 008
-0.170
+0.482
-0.254

-0.439
-0.6.50
+0.3.58
+0.901
-0.043

—0.359
+0.229
+1.271
-0.285
-0.383

+0.792
—0.034
+0.202
+0.046
+0.004

—1.368
+0.544
—0.771

+0.044
+0.449

+0.090
—0.971
—0.961
+0.984
—0.583

-0.020
+0 451
-0.405
—0.110
—0.238

+0.376
-0.620
+0.154
-0.831
—0.484

+0.529
-0.389
-0.119
+0.427
-0.268

+0.595
+0 517
+0.860
+0.02O
—0.619

+0.156
+0.183
-0.035
+0 294
-0.250

-0.156
—0.353
+0 810
-0 8-5
-0.467

HALL, ABERRATION CONSTANT.
OBSERVATION EQUATIONS. POLARIS. CLAMP EAST.

79

66.
67
68.
69
70,

71,

72,
78,
74,
75.

76,

77,
78,
79,
80.

81.
82.
83.
84.
Ki.
86.

a6.

b.

sin (©+B),

-0.497
—0.626
—0 694
-0.706
—0.791

-0.810
-0.819
-0.971
—0.987
-0.987

-0 979
-0 966
-0.8n5
-0.838
-0.830

-0 620
—0.482
-0.453
—0.249
40.183
-0.150

b.
cos(©+B)

-0.852
-0.835
-0.702
-0.690
-0.591

-0.565
-0.5.=S1
-0.173
-0.026
f 0.007

+0.137
+0.202
+0.493
+0.521
+0.535

+0.768
+ 0.862
+0.877
+0.9.=i5
+ 0.969
+0.975

n'.

+0.49
+0.40
—0 05
+0.18
-0.03

+0.14
-0 52
4 0.29
+0.68
+0.05

-0.02
-0 48
-0.17
+0.71
+ 1.13

+0.18
—0.60
+0.53
+ 0.46
+0.45
—0.32

+0. 146"

+0.053

-0.402

-0.172

-0.376

-0 205
—0 863
+0.008
+0.431
—0.190

-0.225
-0 665
—0.265
+0.636
+1.062

+0.222
-0.501
+0.640
4 0.637
+0.647
—0.114

n' = n —4.00"

[vv] = 22.521

80

MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

OBSERVATION EQUATIONS. POLARIS S. P., CLAMP EAST.

1.
2.
3.
4.
a.

6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

11.
12.
13.
14.
15.

16
17.
18.
19

20.

21.
32.
23.
24.
25.

26.
27.
33.
29.
30.

31.
32.
33.
34.

2a.

36.
37.
38.
39.
40.

41.
42.
43.
44.

45.

46.
47.
48.
49.
50,

51.
52.
53.
54,

55.

56,
57
58
59.
60

61,
62.
63.
64.
65

Afi.

+

+

+

Sin (0+B).

-0.313
-0.330
—0.451
-0.480
0.509

-0.692
—0.716
-0.770
-0.790
-0.808

-0.899
-0.918
^0.940
—0.945
-0.985

-0.987
-0.987
—0,986
—0.984
—0.970

"0.967
—0.937
-0.914
—0.901
—0.856

-0.708
-0.696
—0.684
— 0.2B7
-0.234

—0.201
-0.034
+0.068
+0.2:{7
+0.270

+0.384
+0.578
+0.698
+0.881
+0.889

-1-0.904
+0.970
+0.987
+0.>87
-F0.980

f 0.934
+0.902
+0.855
-fO.788
+0.661

+0.-621
+0.257
-0.012
-0.028
-O.044

-0.213
— 0.2U
- 0.292
-0.417
-0.447

—0.490
-0-700
—0.744
—0.795
-0.985

b.
cos (0+B)

-0.936
-0.930

—0.877
—0.863
-0.845

-0.704
-O.680
-0.618
—0.592
-0.566

—0.409
-0.364
—0.302
0.286
-0.061

—0.012
+0.021
+0.037
+0.070
f 0.183

+0.199
+0.311
+0.372
+0.403
+0.491

+0.688
+0.700
+0.712
+0.950
-F0.958

+0.966
+0.986
+0.985
-f-0.9.58
+0.949

+0.909
+0.799
+0.698
f 0.445
+0.429

+0.398
HI.I81
L0.0:26
-0.027
-0.114

-0.319
-O.400
—0.492
—0.594
—0.733

-0.768
— C.9iS2
-0.987
—0.986
- 0.986

-0.964
-0.9.56
-0.943
—0.894
-0.880

—0.857
-0.696
—0.6-48
—0.584
—0.067

n'.

+0.22"

—0.42

+0.24

+0.31

—0.14

+ 1.29
+0.46
+0.38
+0.19
+0.91

+0.00
+0.63
+0.47
+ 1.23
+0.54

-0.12
+0.57

+0.87
—0.03

+0.28

+0.20
-0.34
—0.07
—0.11
—0.25

—0.37
—0.02
+0.03
+0.56
—0.07

—0.03
—0.61
—0.26
+0.81
—1.07

+0.65
+0.18
-0.24
—0.94
+0.47

-1-0.95
+ 1.18
—1.14
+0.09
+0.51

—0.47
-K).28
-0.74
+0.23
+0.44

+0.92
+0.10
+0.61
+0.92
+0.36

4-1.02
-0.02
+0.64
+ 1.19
40.50

+0.20
+0.87
+0.83
1.71
0.72

t

- 0.333"

-0.974

-0.312

—0.241

—0.689

+0.765
—0.061
—0.127
—0.311
+0.416

-0.453

+0.189
+0.047
+0.812
+0.193

-0.450
+0.251
+0.557
—0.332
+0.018

—0.056
—0.553
-0.260
—0.288
—0.392

-0.425
—0.069
—0.013
+0.654
+0.031

+0.078
-0.473
-0.109
+0.975
—0.904

+0.818
+0.337
—0.102
—0.863
+0.543

+ 1.014
-i-1.180
—1.191
+0.021
+0:410

—0.645
+0.073
-0.985
—0.059
+0.087

+0.550
-0.382

+0.079
+0.388
—0.174

+0.470
—0.571
+0.087
+0.637
—0.0.52

—0.3.50
+0.346
+0.317
+ I.2I1
+0.371

HALL, ABERRATION CONSTANT.

81

OBSERVATION EQUATIONS. POLARIS S. P., CLAMP EAST.

AS.

b.

sln(0+B).

b.
cos(G+B).

n'

V.

66

+1
+1

+1

-0.987
-0.987
—0.968
-0.916
-0.882

-0.842
-0.600
-0.587
-0.518
—0.489
-0.460
-0.414

+0.015
+0.0<1
+0. 194
+0.367
+0.442

+0.513
+0.783
+0.793
+0.840
+0.808
+0 873
+0.895

+ 1.04"

+1.14

-0.04

-0.36

-0.05

-0.06
-0.28
-0.49
-O.IO
-0.24
-0.82
+0.78

+0.719"

67

+0.825

68

-0.298

69.

-0.552

70

-0.212

71

-0.193

72

-0.288

73

-0.492

74

-0.077

75. .

-0.207

76

-0.778

77

f-0.835

n' = n +4.00"

[D»] = 21.565.

OBSERVATION EQUATIONS. POLARIS R., CLAMP EAST.

AS.

b.
sin (©+B).

b.
COS(©+B).

n'.

V.

+1

+1
+1

+t
+1

• +1

-0.917
—0.827
-0.757
+0.077
+0.376

+0.391
+0.627
+0.728
-H).924
+0.953

+0.965
+0.979
+0.987
+0.987
-rO.968

+0.919
—0.^9
—0.969
—0.925
-0.919

-0.892
—0.885
—0.607
-0.468
-0.438

+0.364
+0.540
+0 633
+0.984
+0.913

+0.906
+0.763
+0.666
+0.357
+0.261

+0.206
+0.121
+0.018
-0.036
-0.192

-0.359
+0.129
+0.187
+0-343
+0.359

+0.419
+0.434

+0.774
+0.8:0
+0.885

+0.36"

-0.34

—0.40

4-0.76

-0.11

-0.16
+0.88
-0.29
-O.hS
-0.34

-0.76
—1.40
-0.25
-0.72
-1.11

-0.39
+0.50
-0.26
+0.91
-0.23

-0.51

+0.24
-0.86
+0.94
+0.10

+0.329"

3

-0.453

8

-0.550

4

+0.617

5

-0.133

6

-0.176

7

+0.989

8

-0.077

9

-0.433

to

+0.170

11

—0.214

12

-=0.800

13.

+0.413

14

-0.0-26

15

16

-0.327
+0.479

17

+0.592

18

-0.200

19

+0.889

20

—0.259

21

—0.567

82

+0.176

23

-1.057

24

+0.7J5

25

—0.117

Q' = n —1.00" [vv] = 6.701.

11

82

MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

OBSERVATION EQUATIONS. POLARIS S. P. R. CLAMP EAST.

AS.

b.

sin(0+B).

b.
cos(©+B).

n'.

V.

1

1

+ + + + + +

—0.565
—0 618

+0.967
+0.978
+0.982

+0.978
+0.973
+0.958
+0.755
+0.607

+0.073
+0.055
—0.096
-0.112
-0.162

-0.308
-0.340
-0.490
—0.744
- 0.958

-0.964
—0.970
-0.973
-0.976

-0.809
—0.770
+0.197
+0.128
+0.095

-0.131
-0.184
—0.235
-0.636
-0.779

-0.984
-0.986
—0.982
-0.980
-0.974

-0.938
-0.937
-0.857
—0.648
-0.236

—0.293
-0.181
-0.165
-0.148.

+0.62"

—0.20

-0.13

+0.13

+0.55

+0.21
-0.09
-0.05
+0.90
-0.27

+0.30
+0.18
—0.13
—0.73
-0.45

-0.27
+0.12
+0.10
-0.68
+0.06

+0.32
-0 31
+0.20
+1.11

+0.635"

2

—0.199

3

-0.388

4

—0.107

5

+0.324

6

+0.054

7

—0.230

8

—0.174

9.

10

+0.894
—0.235

11

+0.385

12

+0.265

13

—0.050

14

-0.65!

15

—0.374

16

—0.209

17

+0.176

18

+0.132

19

-0.720

20 ■.

—0.114

21

+0.164

22

—0.501

23

+0.00*

24

+0.909

[VV] = 4.161.

HALL, ABERRATION CONSTANT.
OBSERVATION EQUATIONS. POLARIS, CLAMP WEST.

83

b.
7.
8.
9.
10.

II.
12.
13.
14.
15.

16.
17.
18.
19.

20.

21.
22.
23.
24.
25.

26.
27.
28.
29.
30.

31.

33.
34.
35.

36.
37.
38.
39.
40.

41.
42.
43.
44.
45.

46.
47.
48.
49.
.50..

51.
52.
53.
54.
55.

56.
57.
58.
59.
60.

61.
62.
63.
64.

A6.

+

+
+

+

+

+

Sin (e+B).

—0.871
—0-906
—0.913
—0.099
-O.031

+0.189
+0.205
+0.712
+0.911
+0.925

+0.959
+0.962
+0.9.=>8
+0.949
+0.921

+0.901
+0 836
+0.827
+0.817
+0.731

+0..')91
+0.577
+0.271
+0.2,54
+0.137

+0.121
+0.070
+0.020

— o.iae

—0.295

-0.342
—0.373
-0.433
-0.6.53
—0.883

—0.897
—0.901
-0.917
—0.928
-0.987

—0.986
—0.983
-0.970
—0.856
— 0.9U9

—0.895
—0.888
—0.823
-0.814
- 0.786

—0.637
-0.335
-0.238
—0.204
—0.140

—0.038
+0 014
+0.133
+0.708
+0.777

+0.879
+0.967
+0.917
+0.857

b.
cos(©+B)

—0.466
- 0.393
—0.377
+0.982
+0.987

+0.969
+0.965
+0.684
+0.379
+0.347

+0.229
—0.220
—0.237
—0.271
—0.353

—0.402
— 0..525
—0.540
—0.5.55
—0.662

—0.791
-0.800
—0.949
—0.9,53
-0.977

-0.980
—0.984
—0.987
—0.969
—0.943

—0.926
—0.914
—0.887
—0.739
-0.442

-0.413
-0.398
—0.367
-0.337

+0.017

+0.0.34
+0.083
+0.181
+0.245
+0.3i^4

+0.415
+0.429
+0.544

+0.,5.58
+0.598

+0.754
+0.927
+0.957
+0.965
+0.977

+0.986
+0.987
+0.978
+0.688
+0.609

+0.448
— O.li-7
—0.364
—0.490

n'.

-0.38'

+0.46

-0.11

+0.28

+0.15

-0.19
+0.02
+0.2-5
+0.06
+ 1.03

+ 1.02
—0.13
+0.08
+0.01
—0.83

-0.24
+0.03
— 0..56
—0.72
+0.06

-0.31
+0.40
+0.67
+0.30
-O.05

+0.04
+0.52
—0.49
+0.26
—0.57

-1.04
-0.01
+0.15
+0.35
—0.78

-0.38

—0.09

0.00

-0.47

+0.73

+1.02
+0.76
+0.57

+1.48
+0.42

—0.18
—0.08
+0.69
+0..51
+0.10

+1.58
+0.68
+0.74
—0.45
—0.13

—1.30
-0.04
—0.35
—0.06
-0.33

+0 11
-0.65
—0.02

+0.19

—0.524"

+0.300

—0.273

+0.(»7

-0.063

-0.367
—0.154
+0.201
+0.072
+1.049

+ 1.060
-0.029
+0.183
+0.116
—0.717

-0.124
+ 0.153
—0.436
- 0.596
+0.183

—0.188
+0.521
+0.764
+0.393
+0.028

+0.115
+0.589
—0.429
+0.288
—0.563

—1.042
—0.019
+0.129
+0.274
—0.929

-0.535
—0.248
—0.164
—0.641
+0.503

+0.790
+0.525
+0.324
+1.227
+0.155

—0.447
—0.348
+0.417
+0.236
—0.175

+1.306
+0.429
+0.500
— O.P86
—0.358

-1.514
-0 246
-0..537
—0 120
—0.369

+0.109
-0 .551
+0.093
+0.311

n' = n +1.00

[vv] = 18.191.

34

MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.
OBSERVATION EQUATIONS. POLARIS S. P., CLAMP WEST.

1.
2.
3.

4.
5.

6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

U.
12.
13.
14.
15.

16.
17.
18.
19.
20.

21.
82.
23.
24.
25.

26.
27.
28.
29.
30.

31.
32.
33
34.
35.

36.
37.
38.
39.
40.

41.
42
43.
44.
45.

46.
I «.
48.
49.
nO.

51.
52.
53.
54.
55.

56.
57.
58.
59.
60.

61.
62.
63.

&S.

+

+
+

sin (0+B).

—0.881
—0.909
—0.947
+0.011
+0.113

+0.164
+0.214
+0.231

+0.752
+0.816

+0.836
+0.927
+0.9S3
+0.960
+0.956

+0.930
+0.924
+0.912
+0.832
+0.822

+0.792
+0.748
+0.597
+0.584
+0.327

+0.263
+('.146
+0.129
4-0.079
—0.022

—0.039
—0.386
—0 319
—0.363
-0.457

—0.718
— fl.879
—0.920
-0.966
—0.981

—0.983
— O.W87
-0.986
—0.972
—0.946

-0.885
—0.862
—0.727
—0.668
—0.564

—0.480
—0.4.50
-0.196
+0 040
+0 091

+0,275
+0.325

+0.388
+0.771

+0.782

+0.937
+0.8.'5
+0.786

b.
cos(©+B).

-0.444
—0.384
—0.276
+0.987
+0.980

+0.973
+0.963
+0.959
+0.638
+0.555

+0.525
+0.339
+0.322
—0.229
—0.246

—0.330
—0.346
-0.378
—0.532
—0.547

-0.589
—0.644
—0.786
—0.796
-0.931

—0.951
—0.976
—0.979
—0.984
—0.987

-0.986
—0.945
—0.934
—0 917
-0.875

—0.676
—0.449
—0.360
-0.202
-0.105

-0.089
—0.024
+0.042
+0.173
+0.284

+0.437

+0.481
+0.668
+0 726
+0.809

+0.863
+0.878
+0.967
+9.986
+0.982

+0.948
+0.933
+0.908
+0.616
+0.602

+0.311
—0.542
- 0.598

n'.

V.

+1.25'
+1 13
+0.42
+0.36
—0.50

+0.687' ■
+0 548
—0.191
+0.012
-0.805

—0.24

+0.77
+0..52
+0.06
-0.37

— 0..522
+0.510
+0.269
+0.068
—0.325

-0.24
-0.66
-0.65
-0.02
+0.35

-0.183
-0.542
-0 528
+0. 178
+0.548

-0.59
-0.66
-0 53
-0.59
+0.76

—0.394
—0.464
-0.336
—0.412
+0.935

+0 02
+0.25
-0 u
+0.35
+0.38

+0.187
+0.405
—0.003
+0.452
+0.389

+0.51
—0.07
+0.11
+0.51
—0.43

+0.493
-0.134
+0.040
+0.419
-0.564

—0.25
-0.34
+0.50
+0 16
+0.04

-0..S92
-0.591
+0.233
-0.128

-0.292

+0.18
+0.45
+0.76
-0 02
+0.37

-0.288
-0.112
+0 170
—0.648
-0.276

+1.07
--0.16
--1.04
-0.23
+ 1.30

+0.421
—0.497
+0.375
-0.444
+0.624

+0.78
+0.55
+0.77
+0.86
+ 1.18

+0.112
—0.113

+0.144
-0.252
+0.608

-0.38
r0.51
+0 48
+0.97
-0.22

-0.924
- 0.023
+0.045
+0.634
-0.534

—0 07

+ 1 02
+0 14
-0.09
+0.71

-0.302
+0.812
-O.038
-0.071
+0.735

+o.a5

-0 93
-0.10

+0.475
-0.764
+0.066

n' = n -1.00"

[vv] = 12.510.

HALL, ABERRATION CONSTANT.
OBSERVATION EQUATIONS. POLARIS R. CLAMP WEST.

86

AS.

b.

sin (©+B'.

b.
COS(0+B).

n.. !

i
I

■»). .

1

+1

+ 1
+ 1

+1
+1

+1

—0,925
-0.936
-0.9.53
+0.019
+0.070

+0.328
+0.769
+0.801
+0.936
-0.943

-#.956
- 0.964
-0 967
—0.710

-0,686

—0.649
—0.598
-0.270
-0.107
+0.048

+0.1'!0
+0.150
+0 854
+0.895
+0 959
+0.830

-0.346
-0.315
—0.253

+0.987
+0. 984

+0.928
+0.618
+0.576
+0.313
—0.289

-0.242
—0.210
+0.196
+0 686
+0.710

+0.743
+0.786
+0.949
+0J82
+0.986

+0.981
+0.976
+0.494
+0.416
-0.232
—0.535

-0.44
+0.03 1
--0.35
-0.64
-0.62

-0.08
+0.15
-0.23
-0.37
-0.34

—1.04
-0.64
-0.07
+0.04
+0.33

+0.63
+ 1.19
-0.54
+0.99
+0.25

+0.03
+0.22
—1.49
—1.05
—0.42
1 +0.34

—0.252

2

+0.206

3

+0.501

4

-0.B67

5

—0.634

e

-0.012

7.

+0.430

8

+0.072

9

+0.0S3

10

—0.175

11

-0.894

12

13

—0.507
—0.074

14

-0 065

15

+0.223

16

+0.521

17

+ 1,079

18

-0.625

19

+0.934

20

+0.231

21

+0.024

22

+0.2:i9

23

—1.147

24

-0.671

25

26

+0.192
+ 1.021

n' = n —1.00" [vv]

= 8.192

OBSERVATION EQUATIONS. POLARIS S. P. K. CLAMP WEFT.

1

2

3

4-

5

6

1:::::::::::::::::::^

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

S2

23

84

25

26

27

28

b. I b.

sin (0+3). cos(G+B).

—0.874
-O 888
—0.916
+0.939
+0.889

+0.772
+0.650
+il.4.=.3
+0.212
+0.062

—0.022
—0.106
—0.239
—0.426
—0.761

—0.802
—0.879
-0.913
—0.920
-0.925

-0.954
—0.979
-0 9.58
—0.954

+0.868

+0.899
+0.914
+0.852

—0.4.58
—0.428
-0.368
+0.305
-0.425

—0 617
—0.742
-0.877
—0.963
-0.985

-0.987
—0.981
—0.957
—0.890
- 0.627

—0.575
-0.449
-0.374
—0.360
-0.344

—0.2.50
+0.123
+0.237
+0.2.53
+0.472

+0.409
-0.372
— 0.4i)7

n'.

+0.26
+0 37
+0.39
+0.31
+0.4O

- 0.09
—1.05
—0 61
-0.31
+0.05

+0.24
+0.59
—0.40
—1.12

+0.98

—0.12
+0.40
+0.19
+0.13
+0.44

+1.30
+0.77
+0.84
+0.48
—0.90

—0.52
-1.06
—1.28

— 0.145'
-0 051
—0.064
+0.718
+0.979

+0.475
—0.519
-0.154
+0.034
+0.316

+0.459
+0.760
—0.312
- 1 . 155
+0.685

—0.453
—0.010
-0.260
-0.328
—0.025

+0.793
+0.147
+0.198
-0.164
—0.578

—0.164
-0.481
—0.702

n' = n+1.00"

[vv] = 6.993.

86 MICBIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

Oorrespoudiug to the several sets of observations are normal equations
and solutions as follows:

Clamp East, above pole.

+86.003 Aa
-23.895
- 3.561

-23.895 Ak
+46.133
- 3.692

- 2.561 TT
+ 3.692
+37.616

+ 6.9«0 =
—12.073 =
-10. .536 =

a5 = — 4 008"
Ak = +0.237
w = +0.256

±0.041'
±0.056
±0.058

wt.
73.6
39.3
37.3

[nn. 3] = 22.523 [vv] - 2J..521.

Probable error one equation = r = ±0.351 '.

Clamp Ea.st, below pole.

+77.000 r,6 —23 069 Ak — 2.464 it +18.820 -

-23.019 +40.317 + 1.281 —10.318 =

— 2.464 + 1.281 +34.670 —12.450 =

wt.

a5 = +3.807" ±0.046" 63.7

Ak = +0.135 ±0.063 33.4

IT - +0.340 ±0.062 34.6

[nn. 3] = 21.558 \vv^ - 21.565 r = ±0.364".

Clamp East, reflected, above pole.

+25.000 Ai + 0.298 Ak +10.549 jr -4.340 =

+ 0.298 +16.658 —3.144 —5.682 =0

+ 10.549 —2.144 +7.701 +0.677 =0

wt.

a5 - —0 580" ±0.118" 9.9

Ak = +0.257 ±0.096 15.1

ir - —0.592 ±0.217 2.9

fnn. 3] = 6.702 [»«] = 6.701 r = ±0.372".

Clamp East, reflected, below pole.

+21.000 AS -0 .9.50 Ak —12.423 w +1.490 =

— 0.950 +13.064 + 2. .58/ +0.255 =
—12.423 +^..587 +10.358 +0.392 =

wt.

a6 - —0.222" ±0.102 ' 8.7

Ak = +0.026 ±it.087 11.9

Tr = —0.310 ±0.158 3.6

[nn. 3) = 4.1.50 \vv\ - 4.161 r = ±0.300".

Clamp West, above pole.

+64.000 a6 — 2.120 Ak — 2.499 tt +*4.790" =

— 2.1J0 +32.741 —2.319 —5.456 =0
-2.499 -2.319 +39.602 +4.179 =0

wt.

a5 = +0.92.5" ±0.046" 63.6

Ak = +0.152 ±0.065 32.5

ir = —0.135 ±0.068 29.3

[an. 3] = 18.185 lvv\ =18.19! r = ±0.368".

Clamp West, below pole.

+63.000 a6 + 1.825 Ak — 0.171 tt -t-14.270" =

+ 1.825 +30.»«1 —0.775 —12.686 =0

— 0.171 —0.775 +30.891 +3.879 =0

wt.

AS = -1.239" ±0.039" 62.9

Ak = +0.427 ±0.0.56 30.4

TT = —0.116 ±0.055 30.9

[nn. 3] = 12.493 [i/«] = 12.510 r = ±0.308".

HALL, ABEliUATlON CONSTANT.

87

Clamp West, refleeteil, above pole.

+26.000 .^S — 2.905 Ak

- 2.905 +13.540

+ 10.889 + 1.125

[nn. 3] = 8,196

AS

rr
[VV] = 8.192

-0.701"

+0.245

—0.334

r = ±0.405.

+10.889 ""
+ 1.125
+11.777

-tO.105'
±0.114
±0.1.54

-3.420"

-2.071

+0.410

wt.
14.8
12.4

6.8

=
=
-

Clamp West, reflected, below pole.

+28.00GAS — 5.006 Ak

[nn. 31 = 6.966

5.008
-11.727

+ 16.931
+ 2.126

a5
Ak

[vv] = 6.993

+0.963"

+0..563

-0.273

r - ±0.367-

-11.727 IT

+ 2.126
+ 10.330

±0.094"

±0.089

±0.153

+0.680" =
—9.138 =
+ 1.178 =

Wt.
14.3
16.0

5.4

On looking over the residuals it will be seen that some are large. But
it is doubtful whether any could fairly be omitted. It will be observed,
also, that there are changes in the signs of the residuals which seem to
correspond to sudden changes in the structural condition of the instru-
ment. However, the observations above and below pole ought to eliminate
such changes.

In combining the above results, therefore, probably the reflected obser-
vations should be omitted. If the mean is taken of the values derived
from direct observations we have

Ak

0.238'', or k = 20.683'

As stated before, in handling the meridian circle hereafter, I hope to
be able to make frequent reversals, and improve somewhat the accuracy
of the observations. It requires one day's work with an assistant to re-
verse the instrument and readjust the microscopes. Microscopes of higher
magnifying power might be employed, also, for reading the circles, and it
is expected to make some improvement in this direction.

19. — Latitude.

To find the latitude from the Polaris observations the mean of the re-
sults reduced to 1900.0 can be taken, so that we have

1900.0.

Clamp East.

°>
c <0

86

77

25
24

64
63

26
28

Z.

Division
under
Micr. I.

Div.
error.

Red.
for runs.

Per.
error.

Above pole

Below Dole

46°
48

133
131

46

48

133
131

29'
56

30
03

29
56

30

03

34.53"
41.71

22.35

14.58

39 46
46.76

22.44
15.44

205° 04-06'
202 36-38

118 00-02
120 28-30

298 00-02
300 28-30

25 01-06
22 36-38

+0.75"
+0.47

+0.17
+0.17

—0.17
—0.17

—0.75
—0.47

+0.064"
-0.051

-0.103
-1-0.042

+0.148
-0.101

-0.142
4-0.094

-0.041"
—0.041

Above pole, reflected

Below pole, reflected

Clamp West.

Above Dole

-0.053
—0.054

—0.048

Below pole

-0.030

Above pole, reflected

—0.065

Below pole, reflected

-0.014

A<fr for position of reflection basin = —0.02",

88 MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

If now the mean is taken of these corrected zenith distances, each being
weighted unity, we have for the latitude

«= + 42° 16' 48.78".

A few observations of 8 Ursae Minoris, and 51H Oephei give respec-
tively 48.80" and 48.96". They were taken like Polaris, above and below
pole, direct and reflected, but no division errors were applied.

I acknowledge gratefully a grant from the Bache Fund of the National
Academy of Sciences for assistance in computing.

NOTE ON THE EXPANSION OF MICHIGAN.

BY >rARK S. W. JEFFERSON;, PROFESSOR 'OF GEOGRAPHY, STATE NORMAL COLLEGE,

YPSILANTI.

The series of maps in Fig. 1 shows graphically the spread of organized
county government in the State of Michigan and appears to conform to
what we know of the progress of exploration and settlement in the region.
The data have all been obtained from the Michigan Book accompanying
Silas Farmer's invaluable map of the State. If Michigan stands for a
people and their civilization, here is shown the expansion of Michigan.

The maps illustrate at a glance such statements as this from p. 117 of
the Michigan Book : — ''Almost the entire state north of Saginaw was then
[1844] a wilderness." In a fully settled country we expect to find a close
adjustment of density of population to its natural resources or its fitness
for manufacturing or commerce. In general regions that have special
value for men will be more fully occupied than 'other regions.

In a new country, however, there is a considerable portion of the ex-
ploration-period in which the places of denser settlement are simply
places of longer settlement, while sparser population means only newer
occupation. For a long ]»ei-i»)d in this stage of settlement immigration
comes to the earlier settlements since they are the more accessible. Here
the newcomer stops and looks about him. Many go no further. Always
the newest settlement looks back to a slightly older place from which it
drew its first beginnings and long continues to draw many of the sup-
plies it cannot XJroduce for itself. Through this mother place must pass
all new arrivals for the frontier. Commonly the new settlements are
governed from the older ones and this arrangement continues until it
becomes inconvenient from Die gi-owth of population and increase of local
afi'airs.

Territorially the early counties of this part of the United States were
very large, but the actual settlement was limited to the smaller area that
is now the whole of the county, all the rest having been lopped off as the
outlying i)arts became settled enough to demand separate county organi-
zation. Thus the dates of organizing government in the separate counties
of the State afford a tolerable index of the spread of the conditions of
civilized life.

The shaded area in each decade map is the area occupied by organized
counties at that date. The Vdank areas had some population probably.

JEFFERSON ON EXPANSION OF MICHIGAN. 89

but not sufficient to demand separate county organization. Counties that
have been subdivided are shaded over their present reduced area only,
since the settlers in the outlying regions liardly enjoyed county govern
ment, owing to their i-emoteness from the county seat. This circumstance
was what led them to demand separation as soon as their numbers war-
ranted it. In general counties have been organized as soon as conditions
would allow.

The 1810 map gives only Wayne county organized. It had been organ-
ized since 1796 with a territory as great as the presenf State and illus-
trates the contraction of county areas just referred to. T Iiave shaded
only the i)i'esent area of (he county since all of the region that was origi-
nally settled will keep the county name and the regions where outlying
counties are organized later must be supposed to have been little settled
previous to seeking separate government.

In 1820 there is an expansion along the waterways north and south
of Detroit, and a county organized at the Straits of Mackinac.

In 1830 the earlier settlements have grown and a county appears to
have immigrated from Indiana.

In 1840 the southern half of the lower peninsula is occupied from lake
to lake.

The year 1850 brings a slight increase in southern Michigan and copper
has led to the organization of Houghton on the Keweenaw peninsula.

In 1860 iron has organized Marquette and the wild tip of the southern
peninsula has been invaded from the lake shores all around.

The next decades see the closing in of counties on the interior continue,
culminating with the organization of Dickinson in 1891.*

On Fig. 2 all these decade maps are combined in one in which age of
county organization is represented by darker shades. Fig. 3 beside it is
a map of the density of rural population with omission of the larger
cities. It was prepared by Mr. Isaiah Bowman, a student at the State
Normal college. The two together show an interesting relation between
age and density of settlement. The apparent exceptions in the northern
peninsula are largely due to the omission of Marquette and Sault Ste.
Marie city populations.

* Tbe space left blank for Dickinson on the 1890 map has been made to include also Iron, but thL*;
was organized a little earlier in 1885.

12

90

MICHIGAN A(3ADEMY OF SCIENCE.

Fife'. 1. Map showing spread of county organization.

JEFFERSON ON EXPANSION OF MICHIGAN.

91

S-

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o
«1

e.
<
i

z
o

I-
<
-I

c
O

o

(f> ■

^

a
o

3
P.
O
O4

^4

o

"in
a

V

•c

be

c

O

ai

Q.

■^

es

■*:>

c9

N

a

CS

be

m

u.

00

N
CO

CD

o
a>

a
s
o
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c8

s

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m

P.

92 MICHIGAN ACADKMV OF SCIENCE.

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY WORK— ITS VALUE AS AN EDUCA

TIONAL FACTOR.

J, J. FERGUSON.

Into almost every field of human study there has crept during recent
years the demand that that particular field shall, within reasonable limits,
be made subservient in larger measure to the principles which have been
the key-note of the wonderful progress which marked the closing decade
of the nineteenth century. Utility is the measure not alone of the
scientific discoveries of the day, but of many of those systems of educa-
tion which in past years men were content to regard as mental calis-
thenics which patiently followed would ultimately reward the student
with a strong and vigorous mentality. Man's life is not of sufficient
length to accomplish all his ambitions, so he asks us to eliminate from
the period of action those factors which may later remain passive. At
times we feel that this utilitarian motive is carrrying us too far out and
beyond that sphere where men have been wont to live and think for the
mere love of learning. From the pregnant storied classics to the pure
sciences the transition was slow but none the less sure. Pure science is not
enough, so today men are demanding that their science shall come in the
form of science applied to the problems of a world essentially commercial
in its thought and action.

In presenting the following thoughts to you I realize fully that the use
of the special line of applied science with which this paper deals might
be claimed to lie alone with that division of the student body who in after
life would have a commercial interest in its detailed application. Having
had but a limited experience in its pursuit we may be in error in the
belief that it carries within its limits a definite value to every student
who would inquire into the working of natural law in a commei-cial
world and who would, beyond this, know something of animal life, the
laws and conditions affecting its perpetuation and further evolution into
more highly perfected types.

When we speak of definite work in Animal Husbandry we limit it in
time to less than a quarter of a century while it is more than a century
since isolated workers undertook improvement with 'definite species, it
has been during quite recent j'ears that the classification of acquired
knowledge has been undertaken. The field is large, little moi-e than the
first sod has been turned. Since our technical work in this line has to
pass the censorship of the commercial mart the following facts may be of
interest. In the L^nited States domestic animals having a commercial
value number over 140. (KM). 000 head with a value of three billions of dol
lars. On parade they would make a solid column of more than 76 abreast
reaching from San Francisco to Boston, or if in single file a solid pro-
cession that would reach six times around the earth and require twenty-
one years to pass a given point mar<'hing steadily at the rate of twenty
miles a day. They would fill a solid stock train of 2,600,000 modern
palace cars over 20,000 miles in length; and further their value exceeds
the total combined value of all the corn, wheat, and other cereals, pota-

FP::K(iUSON ON ANIMAL HUSBANDRY. 93

toes, hay, cotton, s^uj^ar, molasses, tobacco, lumber, wool, coal, petroleum,
silvei*, j^old. ami precious stones, iron, copper, lead. /inc. and other metals
produced annually in (lie whole country.

Technical instruction in Animal Husbandry involves several distinct
lines coveriuf;: the complete cycle of the mutual reciprocating relations
existing between tlie soil, the ])lant. and the animal. Tn actual instructive
practice it is taken up und<'r four main divisions.

In the study of the orij»in. history and characteristics of breeds the
student must bring into ])lay an extensive knowledge of the soil, and
climatic and economic con«litions in the various countries where these
originated. The retentive faculties of his mind will be called upon to
carry a large amount of historical knowledge not only in the way of
identifying the leading imi>rovers of any breed and the influence which
such exerted in modifying and perfecting its type but also in comparing
the various modifications in form, correlation and functions entering into
the breed as the result of natural forces operating, or in response to
<'hanged economic conditions.

The study of characteristics caji be of greatest service only when the liv-
ing subject is in hand for examination. This work calls into play all the
powers of observation and develops a power of memory, enabling it to
present to the mind's eye a picture of what is ideal in the type of any
particular breed. Then best of all, the ability to judge, to draw definite
conclusions is developed from the comparison of types presented in bone
and flesh with the unseen ideal of the mind's eye; accuracy of measure-
ment, a sense of detail and the ability to discern points of strength, and
weakness are all developed by this feature of the work.

Education along whatever line must hold a large measure of compari-
son. The study of English literature is largely comparison, so is chemis-
try where a knowledge of metals, for instance, consists of a comparison
of their varying properties and of their products under treatment with
difl'erent reagents. One of the primary functions in botany is comparison,
in fact as it is today, the chief element entering into our natural sciences
is a study of likeness and difference. In our actual work of comparison
with live animals the comparative faculty is most strongly in requisition
for not only do we regard our subjects as ready for immediate comparison
in general conformation, size, weight, and detailed points of structure,
but we go a step further and ask which more nearly demonstrates the
type of its special breed, which has conformed more nearly to certain
expected results with similar given conditions of food and treatment and
finally which form is best adapted for production in any given line. In
this feature of our work all the faculties before mentioned are exercised,
in addition, the student having developed the power to compare must be
able to summarize his comparative deductions in the form of a definite
expression. Growing out of this comes that personal sense of confidence
in judgment which must be for nil time one of the most desired ends in
any system of education.

Under that division of the work dealing with the principles of breeding
the student is brought into close contact with many of the most wonderful
laws in nature's partly opened book. The factors of inheritance and varia-
tion are the foundation stones of the breeder's art, the first assuring him
within reasonable limits of the perpetuation of acquired characteristics
but limited in its possibilities; the second both toward and untoward in
its operation but practically limitless in the o]>portunity offered for the

94

MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

evolution of higher individual types. Variation is the doorway to suc-
cess. Since so widely differing in its operation it opens up an unending
path of research. Man taking advantage of its aid has given us the
roadster and heavy draft horse. Shorthorn and Aberdeen Angus cattle,
fine and coarse wool sheep, light a«d heavy swine, the members of each
pair though tracing to' common ancestry present wide differences not
only in characteristics but also in adaptability. This department of
study brings the student into close touch with many lines of science. He
must have a knowledge of anatomy in order to be able to understand and
appreciate modifications in fundamental structure. Physiology must be
to him a familiar field so that he may understand the body functions of
the subjects with which he has to deal, and thus comprehend what may be
possible in the way of affecting certain functions whose operation is
favorable by varying surrounding conditions. The student further learns
that improvement is effected only through taking advantage of the tend-
ency to variation, not by any other volition on the breeder's part so that
he must acquaint himself with every known variation of cause and effect
along this line.

The last division of this study is concerned directly with the relation
existing between animals and plants and necessitates not only a knowl-
edge of varieties of cultivated food plants, but also of their chemical com
position as units, as well as their relative composition with regard to
varying proportions of food nutrients. An extensive working knowledge
of organic chemistry is therefore indispensable. Under this head the
'student proceeds still further with the study of physiological problems
looking towards an intimate knowledge of the unit and relative values
not only of ordinary food stuffs but of the many commercial products
within his reach. An interesting line of investigation rests in the problem
as to what extent animal form may be modified through the use of food
stuff rich or poor in their content of certain essential constituents. This
brings us directly into touch with the work of the biological laboratory.
At several institutions, experiments are conducted which terminate only
when the animals used have been literally dissected in class clinics.

This then is in brief an outline of Animal Husbandry work as it is. We
have endeavored to indicate that its intelligent pursuit calls into opera-
tion an extensive knowledge of several of the pure sciences. It would be
true to say that it takes its place as one of the ajjplied sciences for there
are but few lines of human endeavor into which so many of these enter
so largely and which respond more quickly to their application.

Perhaps we may be permitted to go a step further and hazard the sug
gestion that in a commercial way we might make use of its possibilities
with even a wider field in view. Since every student is more or less
familiar with the various forms of domesticated animal life might we not
make use of many of its forms in our zoological and biological laboratories
having them replace many of the species less known to the every day
world. An o)t)jection is urged against the pursuit of the classics and
higher mathematics Hiat they are as it were, but drill grounds in which
the student is worked to develop his thinking powers. The same is true
of much of the laboratory work along the line mentioned. It is well and
good at the time but in later life there is usually no connecting link
between such and the surroundings of the matured student. We are all
more or less in touch in some form or other with commercial animal
life in its various forms. Might it not be that in a laboratory study of

SKVKRANCK ON (^ItOI' I Ml 'KOVKMKNT. «-^

some of its specimens th<' student would find added interest; the knowl-
edjie thus gained should remain with him lonj-er in view of the daily
sight and sound of like subjects. We believe this ((uestion is parallel to
the line of modern educational development.

May we not go a step further? In our modern tyi)e8 of animals we find
much that gratifies the artistic sense; beauty of curve, outline, and pro-
portion, and in many cases, of color are found in perfection. What more
is wanted in the subject for the pen and pencil of the artist or the
painter's color? Since the days of Paul Potter to the rich full years of
Rosa Bonheur many have labored in vain to truthfully portray animal
life and character. It is admittedly the most difficult study in this field
of art. Otherwise should we find but one brush to do it justice in a
century. To one familiar with animal life here lies an infinite field for
work on canvass and in black and white.

THE NECESSITY AND POSSlBILPriES VOU CTIOP IMPROVE

MENT IN MTCHIOAN.

liV GKORGK SBVKRANCIO.

Stock breeders pretty generally recognize that bi-eeding is as important
a factor in increasing profits in animal production as are feeding and
environment. Its importance and its principles have been preached
and practiced for years until few men who consider themselves stock-
men would think of getting best returns if they ignored the problem of
breeding. Even those who simply feed what others have bred, recognize
the value of blood when purchasing their feeders. In this regard it seems
to me crop growers are several years behind stockmen. With the ex
ception of seedsmen and a few large growers of special crops, com-
mercial producers confine their attention pretty strictly to the prob-
lems of increasing the fertility of the soil and better tillage. As far as
the seed itself is concerned the chief question is, "Does the seed possess
good vitality ?"

In the early development of our state conditions itither encouraged
such neglect and economy seemed to favor the system. The land was
rich and any kind of vigorous seed would produce abundant returns.
If one acre did not produce enough, another acre could easily be secured.
Ten dollars expended on more new land might perhaps double or treble
itself, while if applied to land already tilled in the form of better tillage
and time spent in improving and selecting seed it might pay only a good
interest. With the more complete settlement of the good farming lands
of the State, changes have been brought about that demand a change in
our methods of crop production. (.Continuous cultivation and careless
systems of cropping have on the one han<l greatly reduced the fertility of
our land, while at the same time the increase of population and the
attendant decrease in readily available government land, desirable for
farming purposes have increased the value till the gross receipts per acre
and the cost of production come perplexingly near to balancing. Tillage,
that on the virgin soil would bring highly remunerative crops, now fails

96 MICHIGAN ACADKMY OF SCIENCE.

in many cases to briug sufficient returns to pay for the tillage. While
in early times land was so cheap that the interest on the investment was
an insignificant factor in the cost of production the price of land now
calls for such an investment as to preclude the possibility of profit in the
production of light crops. As our land grows older and its value con-
tinues to advance, a still greater outlay per acre in tillage and fertilizers
will be demanded and the interest on the investment will keep increasing
so that the demand for greater acreage production will become more and
more imperative. Furthermore, with high prices for land, it is out of the
question for every young man to own a large farm, hence a greater net
profit per acre is demanded to support a family on a farm than would be
necessary could more acres be worked.

That there must be an increase over present yields per acre if crop pro-
duction continues i»rofitable on our land will readily be seen by a glance
at statistics. According to the 1900 Year Book for the Department of
Agriculture, the average yield of the corn crop in Michigan during the
years 1891 to 1900 inclusive has ranged between 23,7 bushels for 1893 and
38 bushels for 1890, with values per acre ranging from |9.00 for 1899 to
114.16 for 1891.

The average vield of wheat in Michigan has ranged during the years
1891 to 1900 between 7.6 bushels in 1900 and 20.8 bushels in 1898 with
values per acre ranging from |5.24 for 1900 to |17.11 for 1891.

The average yield of the oat crop in Michigan during the same years
has ranged between 26 bushels for 1897 and 36.7 bushels for 1900 with
values ranging from |5.50 for 1895 to |10.40 for 1891.

These statis-tics together with the facts previously mentioned indicate
very forcibly the great necessity of increasing the yields of our farm
crops. For a long time the necessity for better tillage has been recog-
nized and efforts made to improve the crop production through that
means. In the year 1868 the report of R. F. Johnstone, Secretary of the
Michigan State Agricultural Society to the Department at Washington
urges strongly the importance of greater attention to means which shall
stimulate higher cultivation generally, and suggests the question, "Is
it not the duty of the society' to devise means and ways by which it can
promote a more thorough and perfect system of treatment of land than
now prevails?" He says, "The premiums on farms have already done
something in this direction and the example has l)een followed with re-
markable success by some of the county societies. He says further,
"The committee on farms in reporting the awards made, remark that up
to the present time, the general system of Agriculture in Michigan has
been largely governed by the necessity which has compelled each farmer
to apply all his abilities to the clearing and amelioration of the surface
of his land. The greater the surface he could till the greater his returns.
But the time has come when this system must be changed, the necessity
for which is indicated by the decreased production of fields longest under
cultivation. Farms that formerly produced thirty to forty bushels of
the -choicest wheat to the acre now seldom yield over twenty to twenty-
five and in many cases the quality is inferior; and where this yield is
exceeded it is upon the new and recently cleared lands, where the soil is
yet rich with the elements of fertility with which nature has supplied the
surface.

This report indicates to us that for a great many years our leading
agriculturists have realized the necessity for greater yields and thfit

SEVERANCE ON CROP IMPROVEMENT. 97

they sought to bring about the desired result through better tilhige, but
nothing in the report indicates that they thouglit of increasing the j)i-ofits
by improvement of the character of the plants themselves. The leading
agriculturists now realize that better tillage and maintenance of fertility
must be supplemented by better bred plants.

AVe have thus far spoken of the imperative demand for greater produc-
tiveness. While there is a great need for heavier yielding varieties there
are nniny other characters beside mere prolificacy that need to be im-
proved, many of which, however, have a very direct bearing on increased
production. For example, a harder, more glutinous berry would improve
the milling quality and the food value of our wheat. A plant more hardy
and resistant to the attack of the Hessian fly, would also be desirable.
Kust resistance is a quality especially desirable to cultivate in our oats,
and a stronger straw would generally be beneficial. With the desirable
characters in our crops intensified a given outlay on a piece of land
would give much better returns than the same outlay with unimproved
seed just as in the case of well bred stock vs. scrubs.

Conceding the need for improving our farm crops we may well inquire
as to what the possibilities are for improving them and how the improve-
ment may be brought about.

There are many problems yet to be worked out in relation to-plant im-
provement, but in general it is believed that the principles that apply to
plant improvement are practically the same as those that apply to animal
improvement.

Plants are endowed with a plastic nature which permits them to vary
their characters and manner of growth to adjust themselves to new
environments when necessary. These characters become hereditary if
they are encouraged by reproducing the plant under the same condition
for some time. This tendency of plants to vary and their power to fix
and transmit characters makes possible some remarkable improvements
in plants by selection, which it seems to me is the practical method of
improvement for the general grower. Though I am not prepared to say
that I think it would be practical for ordinary producers, the system_ of
selection that takes into account the unity of the individual plant is the
system that promises greatest results. .As Bailey says, "There is varia-
bility in variation itself." Plants under seemingly identical conditions
differ widely in their characters. A study of a square yard of standing
grain, which to a passerby appears uniform, will reveal the fact that
some plants are very productive, others very light producers ; two may
send out equal numbers of stools, but the stools of one will be fairly uni-
form in size, time of ripening, and quality" of grain while the stools of
the other will be very irregular; some produce weak straw, others strong;
some are resistant to disease, others are not. If the grain of this square
yard be threshed out, mixed, and sown on an even plot of land the result-
ing crop will appear as uniform to the careless observer as the original
square jard. If, however, each plant be threshed separately and the
seed sown in separate rows or plots for comparison, each row or plot
will show very nearly the characteristics of the parent plant but the rows
or plots will differ so in time of ripening, stooling, strength of straw,
etc., that one would hardly believe they are of the same variety, t^ome
plots of wheat and oats grown last summer by Professor Jeffery were
very interesting along this line. During the summer of 1900 he selected
the most promising plants he could find in the general crop. The seed
13

98 MI* HIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

from .these plants was sown in rows one foot apart and the grains six
inches apart in the row. Each row was the progeny of a single plant.
At maturity the plants within a row were quite uniform in character but
a comparison of the rows showed very interesting results. There was a
variation between the rows of oats of about one week in time of ripening
and a marked variation in the character of the straw. There was an
interesting variation in the quality of the grain of the wheat both as
to plumpness and as to glutinous character. The yields of the several
rows of oats ranged from 40.3 bushels to 72.3 bushels per acre.

When we take into consideration that the oats were grown on very
poor land and that they were sown very thin the results lead us to expect
some good results in the future, and when we consider further that in-
dividual plants were produced that yielded as high as 200 bushels per
acre, computing rows one foot apart and a plant every six inches in the
row it is hard to conjecture to just what extent the development may be
carried. The best plants from each of these rows were selected to furnish
seed for the 1902 plots. By this carefully selecting each year it is hoped
to develop some greatly improved strains.

The certainty of improvement by careful selection has been well estab-
lished by seedsmen and experiment station men. The Illinois Station,
working with corn has shown that the size and height of stalk, width of
leaves, length of ears, size and amount of husks and even the chemical
composition of the grain may be changed almost at will by careful selec-
tion. Various seedsmen have developed varieties innumerable, particu-
larly of garden plants, by careful selection for certain characteristics.

Provided the general grower is careful to fix his type of plant in mfnd
and selects uniformly for that type, the question, then, is not as to the
certainty of improvement but as to the economy of the practice. Doubt-
less the small grower would not be repaid from his few acres for the time
thus spent in careful selection. Just how small a business would war-
rant such method of selection is a question. Possibly the large grower
might find profit in some such system as is practiced by the Sea Island
cotton growers. A person may find growing the same season on one of
their plantations; 1. A small plot, which we may call plot number one,
of plants from seed of individuals selected from a similar plot the
preceding year; 2. Another and larger plot, number two, the seed for
which was the whole product of plot number one the preceding year and
the product of which will furnish seed for the succeeding general crop;
and 3. The general crop, the seed for which was the whole product of plot
number two the previous year. Thus the third season from the growth
of the selected individual the general crop is produced. The process
seems like a tedious and laborious one, bTit the general grower does not
need to keep records for publication which require much extra time
making exact measurements, getting exact weights, and saving every
grain. The extra labor would be required principally on the plot number
one in sowing carefully the seed from each ])Iant in separate rows and
then selecting and threshing the best individual plants at harvest. If a
man growing fifty acres of wheat yearly, could increase his average yield
two bushels per acre by such selection it would mean an added one hun-
dred bushels and that would j)ay for quite a little time spent in selecting.

While the selection of individual ])lants is the most rapid and certain
method of developing an improved strain, the small farmer must adopt
some simple means of selecting his seed in bulk. Careful study and

SEVERANCE ON CROP IMPROVEMENT. ««

expei'iinont liavo shown thai tlio siiinllost, the lightest, and the most
imiiiature seed «;eiieiall.v })r(>(lii(<'s I he poorest yield and quality of grain.
In recoguition of this fact some enterprising farmers have adopted the
plan of selecting the best patch of grain in their fields for seed, and
cleaning the same free from all small, light, and immature seed ^-o far as
it can be done with a mill. Where this is jtractieed there is no complaint
of running out of varieties. At the Indiana Station Fultz, Michigan
Amber, and Velvet Chaff wheats grown eleven years without change of
seed showed much larger yields the eleventh year than they did the first.
Professor Latta, in concluding the report of the work, says, "It is high
time that farmers every where should abandon the notion that wheat
will run out."

Selecting the best spot in the field insures a selection of seed from
l>lants that have made the most healthy and vigorous growth and the
thorough cleaning eliminates largely the seeds from the weakly and light
yielding plants, though not entirely. Simply making a very thorough
cleaning of the seed taken from the bin will often work a great improve-
ment. An interesting instance is cited in Bulletin 15; Minnesota, in
which Judge Hall, a flour mill owner of Hudson, Wisconsin, noting that
wheat was very poor in his vicinity and had been for years, offered to
clean the farmers' seed free of charge. Most of the farmers accepted the
offer. He cleand free from dirt, weed seeds, and light and immature
grains and soon increased the yield from below fifteen bushels per acre
to over twenty-five bushels per acre with a corresponding increase in
quality.

There are some difficulties in the way of improvement of our crops by
careful selection. In the first place, there are some important questions
bearing on this subject that do not seem to be definitely settled by our
experiment station workers. For example, workers at different stations
do not seem to arrive at the same conclusions regarding seed exchange.
Experiments at Minnesota seem to indicate that exchange of seed is
beneficial, while experiments at North Dakota and Indiana seem to in-
dicate as clearly that home grown seed will usually give better results
than seed from some other locality. Evidently seed exchange would do
away with the opportunity to improve a strain by selection. Experi-
ments have shown great possibilities for improvement by selection. If
experiments will also show great possibilities for improvement by seed
exchange which method shall we choose for it is evident that the one
practice precludes the other. I, personally, would like to see this prob-
lem investigated more thoroughly by several stations.

Another problem that must be thoroughly understood before we can
most intelligently set about improvement is the compatibility or incom-
patibility of characters. If we wish to promote prolificacy to the highest
point, what will be the effect on quality of product or on hardiness ; if we
wish to intensify a certain quality, at the expense of what other char-
acter must it be done, to what extent may all desirable characters be
combined? The incompatibility of certain characters is now pretty well
understood, as great yield and extreme earliness, finest quality and
greatest yield, etc., but there are still many problems to be solved along
this line.

After all these problems are solved by scientific investigators, it still
remains to disseminate a knowledge of the necessary truths, and induce
the commercial producers to practice the principles that science teaches

IQO MICaiGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

them. This means lots of hard work for experiment station, college, and
institute men for years to come along this one line but we believe that
the importance of the work amply justifies the effort and we hope that
at no very distant time the improvement of plants by the general grower
may be given equal attention with improved methods of tillage and the
maintenance of fertilitv.

WHAT SHALL THE MICHIGAN FARMER GROW FOR FENCE
POSTS AND TELEGRAPH POLES?

BY W. J, BEAL.

As timber disappears in Michigan, one of the first things the owner of
land is likely to think about is, what are the most promising trees to grow
for fence posts. Steel is coming into use, but the chances are that the
farmer will always be glad to secure durable posts of wood, if they can
be had at reasonable prices.

The kinds of trees native to Michigan that produce durable wood for
posts named approximately in the order of their durability are: —

Red cedar, Bur oak,

Mulberry, Blue ash.

Chestnut, Black walnut,

: White cedar, Tamarack,

Swamp white oak, Hemlock,

White oak, Black cherry.
Chestnut oak,

The kinds not native, that in any region of the state promise to grow
well are the common locust and Catalpa speciosa, known as the hardy
catalpa, and possibly the Osage orange.

The durability of wood, depends on a number of important points,
■either one of which may be present or wanting in a certain post.

Foi- the best service, any post should be sound and thoroughly seasoned
Ix'fore it is set in the ground. The lower cut next to the stump, if sound
will last longer than any other in the tree. Of course every one knows
that the heart wood will outlast sap wood, as it contains less nutritious
substance or nitrogenous and starchy matters. A heart stick from the
lower part of a white oak will often last three times as long as one from
near tlie lower limbs of a tall tree. For some one or more reasons we
should naturally cull out or reject as not best to be grown for posts, most
of the species above named. Hemlock, blue ash, white cedar, red cedar
would fall in this list, as they grow very slowly.

We are looking for trees that can be grown with a good degree of cer-
tainty on a variety of soils, and that will grow rapidly and of good shape,
and if the wood be not heavy all the better for many purposes. Of all
the trees that I have seen grown in cultivation in this state, for fence
posts. I now look Avith most favor on (he chestnut and the common locust,
and possibly hardy catalpa. T'nder favorable conditions these all grow
rapiilly, and the timber of each is very durable when exi)Osed to moisture

BEAL ON GROWING FENCE POSTS AND TELEGRAPH POLES. 101

where it ocrasiuiiall.y driesa)iit more or less. None of these three can be
successfully grown in a haphazard way, and the same might be said of
all kinds of trees to some extent. It is not possible in one short paper
to define all of the difliciillies that one is liable to meet who attempts to
grow fence posts and telegraph poles. The operation is complex and if
one of the points be neglected the results may be far from successful or
even disastrous. In all that I say, I hope not to over color the subject,
thus inducing men to proceed who have little knowledge of the require-
ments of trees. For example, let a person select suitable soil and loca-
tion for growing chestnut, locust or catalpa and plant an acre more or
less to either one of these trees by itself, and he would not be success-
ful in the highest degree. Neither of these trees will grow dense enough
to make sullieient shade to keep out the grass and weeds and these are
very detrimental to tree growth. Evergreens, box elders or some other
trees or shrubs that will grow leaves in the shade must be mixed with
either of the trees just named, if the highest success is hoped for. The
trees must be crowded just enough to gradually kill out the lower limbs,
and induce the trunks to run up tall, straight and free from large limbs.
And the amount of undergrowth and crowding required to accomplish
this end is constantly changing as the trees grow older.

Some years ago, there was planted along the line of the Michigan
Southern railway a row of trees on each side, near the line fence. The
trees were chestnut and European larch alternating and set some dis-
tance apart. In most cases the trees were allowed to do the best they
could with little or no care. Since these trees were planted, it has been
shown that the European larch is not reliable in this country. In most
cases the trees became diseased and failed. It has also been shown that
chestnuts grown with no mulch of leaves or other materials about the
roots are about sure to die or be much injured by severe freezing of the
ground during an open winter or portion of a winter when there is no
snow on the ground. A few chestnut trees at the Agricultural College
were set about thirty-three years ago in the lawn where the grass was
closely mowed. The soil was sandy jet the trees made a fair growth and
seemed to be healthy. The early part of the winter of 1898-99 was very
cold with no snow on the ground. These trees all died the next year or
the one following. A portion of the trees on a neighboring farm likewise
perished. But the chestnut trees in the arboretum, where leaves re-
mained as a mulch, passed over unharmed. Again chestnut trees
planted singly along the railroad, had each plenty of room and grew
like apple trees in an orchard, — low with spreading branches above a
very short trunk of little value.

The American chestnut (Castanea dentata) is found in the forests of
some portions of Maine, Vermont, Southern Ontario, New York, Pennsyl-
vania, Delaware, New Jersey, the Alleghany Mountains, and in at least
portions of five counties in southeastern Michigan. It thrives on the
glacial drift, rarely on limestone soils, though it occurs abundantly along
an outcrop of Helderberg limestone in the eastern part of Monroe and
Wayne counties. It is also found in Washtenaw, St. Clair, and Oakland
counties.

The wood is light and very durable owing to an abundance of tannic
acid. Professor Sargent in his Silva which describes and illustrates
every species of native tree in North American says, "No other tree lh-ows
so rapidly or to such a great size on the dry gravelly hills of lite northern

102 MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

eastern states." It in not likely to thrive on clay land nor on low land,
nor in any soil not nntnrally well drained to a good depth.

Hon. W. E. Carpenter, of Poutiac, speaks of transplanted trees in
Oakland county that are now over two feet in diameter. On his father's
farm, were native trees nearh' four feet in diameter and very tall.

In 1877, a few sprouting nuts were planted in rows four feet apart
in the College arboretum. That is twenty-four years ago. A few of the
seedlings died in the hot sun during the first and second years. Other
trees were added for each of the three or four succeeding years. From
time to time they have been thinned. The first flowers a])peared on the
eighth year. Today we have trees large enough for telephone poles in
the country, — small poles, straight, clean, sound and pretty, with a
diameter of the low stump a foot high as shown below.

Early in July 1901, when the woody layer was about oue-ihird grown,
the trees of the arboretum were thinned to give room for those remain-
ing. The bark was removed before the following measurements were
made : —

Diameter at Diameter at
Layers at the large end. Diameter. 2.5 leet. :i/ ftet.

No. 1, 21 9 inche.s li4 inches 3^4 inches

No. 2, -21 8'a inches 3?i inches 2'^ inches

No. 3, 21 714 inches 4'4 iaches 2)4 inches

Unless one is accustomed to measuring, these figures will not mean
much to him.

To acquire the same size, a white cedar in the swamps of Michigan
would be six to eight times as old, 130 to 170 years, and this element of
time is what helps in the cost of production. The interest on the capital
and the risk eat up profits fast and sure.

These chestnut trees have been grown on sandy land, not strong. They
have done the best on the highest rise of land only a few feet above the
others, and are still healthy and growing well, except in a few spots where
they were too much crowded. The land retains the mulch of leaves and
sticks as they fall.

Three miles west of Greenville, Montcalm county, there is a piece of
land which is sandy or with some gravel mixed and some streaks of red
clay with the gravel all naturally well drained. It is not strong land for
producing the best of corn or wheat. I recently examined over an acre
of this land where Henry Satterlee and his son James in 1865, thirty-
five years ago, planted two year old chestnut trees which they started
from the nuts. There were eight or ten black walnuts and as many
butter nuts set at the same time adjoining the chestnuts. The trees were
not set in rows, but scattered about from sixteen to twenty-five feet
apart, — sixty-five chestnut trees on an acre and a quarter of land. There
are sixty trees still living. They were cultivated with hoed crops for
about ten yenrs and then left to open pasture, where ihe wind blew the
dead leaves oil' the ground. Xo other tree or shrubs were ])lanted among
the chestnuts, nor ^ere they crowded in their early growth to induce them
to grow tall and destitute of lower limbs. At present some of the large
lower limbs are dying, ns the trees are now crowding, but the very im-
portant question as to health and rapidity of growth continuing long
enough to grow good telephone poles on that farm is already solved,
although there isn't a tree there suitable for a telephone pole.

Michigan has terns of thousands of acres and more of sucli Innd in the

BEAL ON GROWING FENCl^] POSTS AND TELEGUAPH POLES 103

same latitude and iiortlnvard that could most likely grow chestnut trees
as well as the acre inspected, and some of the laiul referred to has already
in its early years got onto a basis of rye and buckwheat.

The five trees that died while a few others were injured occurred about
six years ago, when a severe late spring frost killed back the tender growth
of that season.

A few trees began to bear nuts when eight years old from the
seed, most of them later. Mr. James Satterlee, who still looks after
this interesting orchard has observed many points of interest as to a
difference in size, shape and quality of the nuts, the relative productive-
ness, the difference of ten days in time of putting forth leaves in spring,
the fact that red squirrels have carried nuts to the woods eighty rods,
where the young trees are now growing. JNIany of these trees are fifty to
sixty feet high, the longest limbs next to the margin of the grove were
thirty-seven feet in length, the circumference of the largest tree was
eight feet and one inch, two others were each seven feet in circumference.
The largest one showed signs of borers in the trunk. The largest black
walnut girted six feet, two inches; the largest butternut, four feet, eight
inches ; a horsechestnut of the same age near by, three feet, nine inches ;
a black oak certainly older than the trees above named had a circum-
ference of only six feet, three inches.

I saw and heard of chestnut trees scattered, a few in a place, for
several miles around, and uniformh^ they are healthy and making a
fine growth, especially where they were cultivated for a time.

A portion of the front yard of about an acre of this homestead is a
model for many a farmer to follow, if he wishes to encourage his chil-
dren to love the country and forest trees. There are over thirty kinds of
trees scattered about, most of them thirty or more years old, and nearly
all are natives to Michigan. What a treasure such an acre would be to
school children in any neighborhood !

For the past ten years, this chestnut orchard has yielded from four
bushels of nuts to eleven bushels per year and they have not been wormy.
In noting the large circumference of these trees, the reader must not
forget that when grown crowded from the start, the ti-unks would be
much taller and the circumference much less.

The well-known tree, the common locust, Eobinia Pseudacacia, is also
sometimes called the black locust or the yellow locust. Trees are found
on the Apalachian Mountains, in New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and a
few other regions. The locust grows very rapidly in places suited to it,
sometimes attaining a diameter of three to four feet, though in Michigan
it usually ceases to grow rapidly after twenty to twenty-five years. It
likes deep rich soil, but does well on poorer land, if not too thin. The
wood is heavy, exceedingly hard and strong, close-grained, and very
durable in contact with the ground. x\s stated in Sargent's Silva. '"No
other North American tree has been so generally planted for timber
and ornament in the United States and in Europe; and no inhabitant
of the American forest has been the subject of so voluminous a literature '*
The roots ramble for long distances and send up young trees in abund-
ance. Stumps send up sprouts freely to luoduce a new crop of Avood.

A few trees about home dwellings or along tlse roadside are often seen,
and in most instances, the trunks are much damaced by borers which
injure the wood and check the growth of the tree. The top does not cast
a dense shade, like a beech. siu';iir maple, oak or pine. The leaves start

104 MTCHTGAN ACADE.MV OF SCIKXCE.

very late in spring compared willi those of most otlier trees. The trunks
of our sugar maples as planted for ornament are very often injured by
borers, the trees i)robably having been previously damaged by the sun,
but trees in the forest or elsewhere so groAvn that the trunks are per-
petually shaded during the growing season almost always remain unin-
jured. So far as 1 have observed, our trees as they grow naturally in the
woods all have their trunks shaded for the whole length by the tops of
surrounding trees, or if a seedling gets started in the open and has its
own way, limbs near the ground shade the trunk and help keep it sound
and help keep out insects. Borers are surest to work in the trunks or
large branches of trees that are exposed to the sun when in leaf. In
other words, locust trees groAvn among other trees of the same or nearly
the same height, are not troubled or but little troubled by borers. This
is a broad statement and may have its exceptions. I have not been over
all regions of the world where locust trees are grown.

In some places at the Agricultural College, for example, the trunks
of scattering trees have often been badly bored by insects, but trees set
in the arboretum, where other trees had already got a start to serve for
shade, the borers were very scarce, and the crowded trees shot up straight,
and sound and with great rapidity. Sound locust timber has always born
a high price in the market, I mean at least for forty years past. In the
spring of 1896, in a small open spot in the woods among some young
trees, I planted about eighteen sprouts of the common locust usually
about the size of a pipe stem or smaller. They are now making a good
showing, and where suitably shaded by other trees, have grown straight
and nice and are destitute of borers.

In the spring of 1880, I set in the arboretum a few sprouts of the locust,
where other small trees were perhaps ten feet high. In August 13, 1901,
with a growth of scarcely 21 years, I measured two of these trees not
including the thickness of the bark. The best tree was cut when younger
to go to the Paris Exposition. Two of these now standing have a
diameter of

No. 1, at the stump has a diameter of \2Yz inches, 24 feet above ground its diameter is 7 inches. No.
at the stump has a diameter of 16 inches, 30 feet above ground its diameter is 8 inches.

This is a long way ahead of the chestnut at the same age. Well grown
locust makes first-class buggy spokes as well as fence posts.

It is fo be remembered, that locusts will not grow leaves thick
enough to shade the ground well and keep out the grass, hence they should
be mixed with as many or twice as many box elders, or fast growing
evergreens, to furnish shade to push up the locusts, and to keep down
grass and weeds. Where locusts are scattered about a few in a place they
are less liable to be discovered by borers. Some may like to know, that
this locust is not adapted to grow on land in the north of Michigan,
known as Jack pine plains, where it has been tried in several counties.

BUTTERFIELD ON SOCIAL SCCENCES AND AGIUCULTURE. 105-

THE SOCIAL SCIP]NCES AND AGRICULTURE.

KBNYON L. BUTTERFIELD.

Tliere can't be any question about the value of science applied to agri-
culture. It is interestiug to note, however, that so- far the study along
this line has been largel.y in the realm of Ihe physical and biological
sciences. It must not be forgotten that during the last two decades the so-
cial sciences have developed very rapidly. This is especially true of the
study of practical problems. Taking Michigan University as an example,
we find courses dealing with practically every economic and social problem
of importance. Taxation, transportation, trusts, immigration, crime^
poverty, and a score more of pressing questions are given scientific study
and exposition.

When, however, we look over the field of agricultural education, we find
that as yet almost no attention is given to the economic and sociological
phases of the farmer's vocation. Even in agricultural colleges very little
is done with these problems. Soil fertility, dairying, — all the scientific
and practical questions relating to the growing of plants and animals are
studied. But the problems that arise because the farmer is a member
of society and of an industrial and social order, are discussed in not
over half a dozen of our agricultural colleges.

So I plead for courses in these subjects. I wish every agricultural
college might have a professor of rural social science. The special bear-
ing of such problems as transportation and taxation upon the farmers
business needs to be brought to the attention of students in these colleges-
Themes like agricultural education, farmers' organizations, etc., need to
be emphasized in colleges designed to train farmers and leaders of farmers.
These subjects should be studied scientifically, and presented not to
students only but to farmers' themselves through institutes and lectures.
Farmers are deeply interested in these subjects. Take the Grange meet-
ings as samples and you will observe that the farmers are constantly
thinking about these things. They would like more light upon such prob-
lems. They feel that a just scheme of taxation is as important to their
ultimate welfare as the spraying of plants. They believe that it is of no
avail to grow greater crops of corn if railroads ma}' charge unjust rates:
And so on. We have in agricultural education miminized these economic
questions. We have seen but one hemisphere of the farm problem. We
must revise our ideas and realize that the application of the social sciences
to the problems of the farmer is just as vital as is the application of the
natural sciences to the problems of the farm.

It would not be out of place to have similar courses in universities,
normal colleges, and theological seminaries. It would be a good thing
if country' clergymen, rural teachers, editors of country papers, physicians
with a country practice, and indeed all educated people, could better
understand the social phases of agriculture. It would help solve the
farm problem. It would tend to give people, not farmers, a better notion
about the importance of agriculture.
14

106 MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

THE FUTURE OF WHITE PINE AND NORWAY PINE IN

MICHIGAN.

t

BV W. J. BEAL.

Fifty years ago it was estimated that Michigan contained 150,000,000,-
000 feet board measure, of merchantable white pine. During the suc-
ceeding years the young trees were growing to increase the yield. For
a long time most people believed the supply was inexhaustible, but
we begin to see the. end of the virgin forests of pine. With scarcely an
exception, no attempt has been made during these long years to save
the young pines, which were started on the road to produce future crops
of timber. The debris was left and when dry it burned, destroying
the young i)ines. and in most cases, there were left no mother trees
scattered about the land to produce seeds, and if there were such trees,
the frequent fires spread over the land destroying the last vestige of
pines. With a continuation of the practices now generally in vogue,
white pine must cut a very small figure in the timber supply of Mich-
igan, unless artificial means are resorted to. After burning, white pine
doesn't sprout again and again from the roots after the manner of oaks
and red maples.

In passing over the land in numerous portions of the state where white
pine was at one time excellent and abundant, it is now somewhat diffi-
cult and exceptional to find a spot of any extent where white pines have
survived. For a typical example, here is a piece often burned over, after
the timber was removed. Some logs were left and plenty of stumps in-
cluding those of white pine. The land is growing up to small oaks,
young poplars, sumachs, pin cherries, a few red maples, June berry,
sweet fern, roses, dewberries, low willow, but not a pine of any kind
is to be seen. Now we meet a man who points with pride to a pine
grove of less than an acre on his farm, the oldest tree of which has
barely passed twenty-two summers.

Five to seven miles northeast of IMuskegon, good stumps of white pine
and a few of Norway are still to be seen. But little of the land is culti-
vated; in the open spots, cattle secure a precarious living, when not
too numerous. The land is growing white oaks, black oaks, sumachs,
June berries, some grasses and sedges and a variety of weeds, A small
number of old mother trees are occasionally met with, their existence
being due to the fact that they were never worth cutting for lumber.
We went over a mile along the railroad track to see one low branched
old settler four feet in diameter, still doing missionary work in the line
of sowing pine seeds for long distances, y^i the crop of young pines was
not abundant. Some of the young pines when only eight feet high, begin
to bear seeds. The dry pastured sand doesn't seem to be a favorite for
seedling pines. But few start under the bushes, y^\, on the whole, I
think Ihe pines would survive and continue 1o be more prominent, if fire
did not occasionally break out destroying many of them. While a new
crop of pines was slowly coming from seeds at disadvantage, the oaks
came more rapidly in 1he form of sprouts.

BKAL OX 'J IMHER. 107

^yost of Greenville, wliere ^rontonlni and Kent counties in ^Michigan
join, I visited a beantifiil and wry exceptional lalce, Tialdwin lake, sur-
ronn(^ed by iirowinii!,- limber in considevalde variety. Larjje pine f^tumps
showed what had been taken off dnrinsi; a few years past. There were
still reniainino; some large living pine trees that were cnlls. The young
pines were thick enongh and were of all sizes up to a diameter of fifteen
to eighteen inches, some of which had recently been harvested. An early
settler who had been familiar with the region for over forty years tells
me that fire has never desolated the region, neither have cattle been
permitted to feed over the land bronsing the young trees. It is a veri-
table oasis of yonng timber, growing on the hills jnst where timber shonld
continue to grow, and where ordinary farm crojjs would prove unprofit-
able owing to the deep washouts, and the difficulty of cultivating such
land and the trouble of harvesting the crops, besides the soil is not very
productive of corn, wheat or potatoes.

so:me of the changes now taking place in a forest

of oak openings.

W. J. REAL.

Just across the road north of the Agricultural College is a piece of
virgin forest about twenty acres in extent. It appears to have been
what was called oak openings fifty to seventy years ago. I have often
visited this forest during the past thirty-one years.

The oldest trees now living are chiefly white oak and they are remote
from each other, say not over one to twenty square rods, with a few of
smaller size. The larger white oaks are two to three and one-half feet
in diameter.

Black oaks are quite abundant, but are much younger and smaller,
not many of which are more than a foot in diameter. On the lower land
there is occasionally a red oak. Red maples are found all through the
forest, a few of which are eighteen inches to two feet in diameter. There
are five large sugar maples, if I found them all. Extending north and
south by this piece of woods is a highway and cleared fields at the west.

On the east side of the road next to the woods stands a lone, tall old
sugar maple thirty inches in diameter. For some reason it now looks as
though this single old tree was in the act of converting a considerable
block of the oak forest into a maple forest, for there are large numbers
of young sugar maples of various sizes in the area where the seeds have
fallen from this interesting mother tree. One maple in this area is but
eight inches in diameter, a very few are five inches, but they do not seem
to be fruiting. Large numbers are one and two inches through, while
those six inches to a foot or even six to eight feet high exist in vast
numbers. As might be expected the small maples are thickest where
there is least shade above.

Why are fair sized red maples so much thicker here than sugar
maples? Apparently because the red maple stumps or roots below
ground, when so left by a fire, will sprout with greater certainty sending

108 MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

up new steins. The same would be true if the maples were closely bitten
off bv cattle or sheep. Sugar maples under such circumstances, seldom
send up new sprouts. The few other large fruiting sugar maples in
other portions of the forest are generally making little headway in pro-
ducing maples, because the oaks furnish a shade too dense for seedlings.
Possibly in former years, the maples have promised as well as they do
now in one portion of the forest, but many crops of young seedlings one
after the other may have been destroyed by fire. No fire has passed
through the woods in thirty years past.

In this piece of woods are numerous large-toothed aspens, nearly all
of which are dead or nearly so. The aspens will not long survive when
overtopped by other trees. They were most likely started from seeds
scattered among the remote white oaks and, later, after the fires had
ceased, were overtaken by black oaks and others and were smothered.

About thirty-five years ago a quantity of young Norway spruces were
set across the road to the southwest of this forest and for some years
past we have been observing young spruces in the woods, though they are
in no place very abundant. Some of them have been transplanted_to
ornament neighboring homes. These young evergreens extend at least
twenty yards into the woods and one of them is 247 yards distant from
the nearest spruce which stands to the southwest. A few red cedars are
to be seen in the woods, although it is probably a quarter of a mile to
the nearest bearing tree. The wind transports the seeds of maples and
pines; the birds the red cedars.

A couple of white birches (Betula alba) have been found in this forest,
though the nearest bearing trees were about 450 yards away.

BROWN ON IDKNTIPYING SPl'X'IES OF WOOD. 109

WOOD STRUCTURE OF ELMS, MAPLES AND OxVKS AS A MEANS

OF IDENTIFYING SPECIES.

R. L. BROWN.

Wood of the broad leaved trees is composed of three elements techni-
cally known as wood fibers, wood parenchyma and pitted ducts. Mnch
the larger part is composed of slender wood fibers that run lengthwise
of the tree and give strength to the timber, the exceeding variability of
these fibers renders it practically impossible to find any characters con-
stant enough for use in identification. The thickness of the cell walls is
the most uniform characteristic.

Extending crosswise of these fibers or radially in every direction from
the pith are the medullary rays or wood parenchyma. They begin just
outside the pith and are continuous to the bark where new ones are added
each year as the tree grows.

The rays may be described as fine or large, conspicuous or indistinct.
The length is the dimension from the pith outwards, the breadth is at
right angles to the length and extends up and down the tree, the thick-
ness extends across the tree perpendicular to the plane of the length and
breadth. Most trees have small rays between the larger ones that never
attain the size of the larger. These will be spoken of as fine or inter-
mediate rays.

The third element is the large pitted ducts that extend up and down the
tree as long tubes. They serve as a means of conveyance and are for the
purpose of identifying wood, the most important.

To my knowledge comijaratively little work has been done upon wood
structure and for this reason this effort is necessarily somewhat prelim-
inary. It has not been my aim to identif}' doubtful species or solve diffi-
cult questions concerning closely related woods but rather to see if the
wood structure possessed any ready means by which the species could be
easily identified giving accurate points of difference instead of the lumber-
man's "I know it by the looks of it."

The idea was to study some of the trees of this State and carefully de-
scribe, compare all parts exclusive of the bark, and then if possible dis-
tinguish by mentioning some of the characteristic differences. The wood
was first examined with the unaided eye and its various qualities noted.
Then a haiid lens was used and the transverse, tangential and radial
sections gone over, and lastly the compound microscope was used for the
more minute details.

The specimens were.such as could be obtained in the vicinity of Lansing
aided by a large number of standard mounted and named specimens put
up by Mr. Hough of Lowville, New York. This furnished a sufficient num-
ber of specimens to enable me to get a fair average of the specific charac-
ters on which to base conclusions. If much variation was found, more
duplicates were made from different individuals to ascertain as nearly as
possible the individual variation that might be expected, and to enable
me to ])ick out a typical specimen.

This work soon brought out the fact that different parts of the tree

110 MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

as well as ditfereut individuals differed considerably. In most cases there
seems to be no regularity in the variation but the rapidity of growth,
distance from the ground, and distance from the pith, make more or
less difference.

First, In the more rapidly growing thicker annual layers, the wood
fibers are in a larger proportion because the band of large ducts collected
at the beginning of the season remains practically uniform, whether the
growth be thick or of medium thickness, thus making the increase largely
of wood fibers. In woods such as the maples, poplars and willows where
the ducts are distributed evenly throughout the season the difference is
less marked for the added fibers have with them their proportion of ducts.

Second, Otlier things being equal a section from the base of the tree
will be the toughest and strongest, the medullary rays the thickest, most
numerous and if distorted at all the most distorted. The branches
farther up become straighter grained, less tough and the annual layers
thinner so that conclusions based upon observations taken from a limb
might vary considerably from those taken from the base of the same tree.

Third, The distance from the pith should be noted however for those
trees having their pitted ducts collected in bands at the beginning of
the season's growth often do not assume their normal position until the
third year and after this for some years may be reduced in size and
number. Also the medullary rays of all the species examined do not
reach their normal size until about one to two inches from the pith,
beyond which, disregarding the annual variation of some species, they
retain an approximately uniform size. Then to be reasonably sure of
a good section for study it ought to be from a known part of a tree six
inches or more in diameter, making a moderate growth, at least not
struggling for a mere existence, and as nearly a typical specimen as
possible.

The number of species makes necessary some basis for dividing them
into groups to simplify their placing.

A first division naturally falls between the coniferae which have no
large pitted ducts and the broad leaved trees which have. A very con-
venient general division of the broad leaved trees may be based upon the
position of the ducts as follows:

First, Tlioi-e having a row, rows or bands of distinctly larger ducts col-
lected at the beginning of the season's growth.

Second, Those having the large pitted ducts scattered throughout the
year with no tendency to collect in bands at the beginning of the season's
growth.

This may possibly have to be modified somewhat later but thus far it
has answered all requirements.

The elms belong to the first group of the broad leaved trees, and the
work on them was extended to include two other members of the same
family, the hackberry and mulberry, which I just mention in passing for
the remarkable similarity' of their wood to that of the elms. This genus is
well marked and quite uniform; and has rapid growing, tough wood, with
a yellowish or cream colored sap wood and a brown or greyish brown
heart wood. The large ducts are all at the beginning of the season's
growth and diminish abruptly to small grouped ones as the season ad-
vances. These groups are arranged in nearly (H]uidistant zigzag rows,
usually tangling outward toward the close of the season. Often the

BROWN ON IDENTIFYING SPECIES OF WOOD. lU

groups of small ducts will form a band parallel to and near the large
ducts, or sometimes a similar baud will also form parallel to the cambium
at the close of the season. Rarely in very rapid growth the zigzaging-may
disappear entirely and the bands of small ducts become approximately
parallel to the wood formed at the close of the season.

For purposes of separating them into species they -may again be divided
with reference to the large pitted ducts.

First, Those having at the beginning of a normal season's growth a
broad band of from two to four very large ducts frequently deflecting
the larger medullary rays.

Second, Those having one row of large ducts with occasionally a vessel
in the second. Large rays not noticeably deflected.

The hackberry and mulberry fall in the first division with the red elm
and may be differentiated by color of the wood, the difference in the
grouping of the small ducts and the gradual or abrupt diminishing of
the large ones.

The American and rock elm are included in the last or second division
and may be separated by the difference in the size of the large ducts and
the thickness of the cell wall of the wood fibers.

The maples belong to the second group of the broad leaved trees having
the large pitted ducts evenly scattered throughout the season. The wood
is medium to light in weight, even grained with sap wood of a pale cream
color usually tinged with rose, heart wood brown with the transverse
section often indistinctly radially streaked. The wood is usually straight
grained, easy to split, the split surfaces having a characteristic velvety
or satiny appearance. The radial sections often show a peculiar charac-
teristic mottled appearance especially in and near the heart wood. The
annual rings are marked by dark thick-walled cells at the close of the
season. The species are very similar but may be usually separated by
differences in weight, medullary rays and the smaller pitted ducts.

For convenience they may be divided into two divisions based upon the
thickness and abundance of the medullary rays.

The first, having numerous large rays from four — ^(occasionally only
three in red maple) to nine cells in thickness in the thickest part and
numerous small intervening ones.

The second, those having the largest rays only one to three cells in
thickness — usually two — and few or none of the smaller intervening rays.

The first includes the sugar maple and the red maple. They are very
similar but may be separated by the thickness of the medullary rays,
the sugar maple having rays from five to nine cells in thickness, the red
maple from four to five or occasionally three and fewer of the small
intermediate rays. The second includes the silver maple, box elder and
the mountain maple. The mountain maple is a small tree, slow growing
and usually has the walls of the smaller pitted ducts in the latter part
of the season's growth more or less distorted as viewed in transverse
section. The box elder can be distinguished from the silver maple by
its rapid growth, larger, coarser fibers and the frequent unsymmetrical
outline of the rays as seen in the tangential section.

The oaks are quite distinct as a genus but the species are very similar
as well as extremely variable and to separate the fifty or more species
given by Sargent by the wood alone would be a well nigh hopeless task.
Nevertheless there are many well marked differences but because of insuffi-

112 ' MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCtKNCE.

cient iHiuiber of specimens I am yet unable to make a definite statement of
any of the specific characters.

The wood is brown or yellowish brown, very heavy and bard, with very
large medullary rays with many smaller intermediate ones. The large
ducts are collected at the beginning of the season's growth beyond which
are arranged the smaller ducts in radial rows.

First in the red or black oak group the smaller ducts are arranged in
single or occasionally double radial rows, the size of the ducts diminishing
gradually toward the close of the season. The large ducts are open or at
least not abounding in glistening fragments of the original transverse
cell walls.

The white oak group has the smaller ducts arranged in much branched
radial rows, the size diminishing abruptly from the larger to the smaller
instead of gradually as in the red oaks. The large ducts abound in
glistening fragments of broken transverse cell wall which gives the region
a silvered appearance.

In conclusion it may be said that the generic characters of the elms,
maples and oaks are very characteristic and may be easily determined
with a hand lens. The specific characters, however, are more minute and
less distinct, yet are sufficiently characteristic in the instances cited to
furnish a reliable guide to timber identification.

RESPONSE OF ROOTS TO CHEMICAL STIMULI.

ANNA L. RHODES.

In the first of this study an attempt was made to determine the effect
of a chemical, necessary for plant growth, upon roots growing in a
nutritive solution which contained all the essential elements except this
one.

This method admitting of no control of the stimulus applied, since
diffusion takes place in no definite manner, the study was varied and
different chemical stimuli were applied to the two sides of the growing
region of the roots. This was accomplished by using gelatine blocks in
which the gelatine was dissolved in solutions of the chemicals of different
concentrations. In these latter experiments isosmotic solutions of
Ca(N0,)2j KNO3, MgSO^, and NaoHPO^, were used with seedlings of
Lupinus albus and Cucurbita pepo. All possible combinations of these
chemicals were made, that is, experiments were performed using each one
with all the others. It was found that NaoHPO^ was most "attractive" to
the Lupinus, and Ca(N03)2 to the Cucurbita seedlings.

Since the solutions used were isosmotic the possibility of osmotropism
is removed. Other experiments in which Ca(N0.)2 and NHjNO;, were
used on one side and distilled wafer on the opposite, show that the bend-
ing could not be due to a traumatic action of the chemical.

From these ex])eriments it is evident that chemicals in the soil have an
effect upon the direction of growth of roots.

LONCYEAR ON MICHIGAN FUNGI. 113

A PRELIMINARY LIST OF THE SAPROPHYTIC FLESHY FUNGI
KNOWN TO OCCUR IN MICHIGAN.

PREPARED BY B. O. LONGYEAR, AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, MICH.

This list is composed of those species of fungi commonly comprised
under the term Saprophytes, those species which derive their nonrishnient
from dead or decaying organic matter, as distinguished from Parasites,
those species which exist at the expense of living organisms. It is not
possible, however, to draw a sharp line of distinction between the Sapro-
phytic and Parasitic species of fungi. Thus there are some species
which, while ordinarily considered as Saprophytes, may under certain
conditions take on a parasitic habit. Examples of such species ma}' be
found among the pore-bearing fungi quite a number of which are capable
of establishing themselves in wounded places on tree trunks, living at first
on the dead tissues surrounding the wound but eventually attacking the
living tissues as well. Such fungi are commonly known as wound fungi.
Still other species normally spend part of their existence as true parasites
while they complete a second stage of growth as saprophytes deriving part
of their nourishment from the tissues killed during the parasitic stage.
Therefore as no sharp line of demarcation exists between saprophytes and
parasites the term Saprophytic Fungi is here used only in a general sense
to indicate those species not commonly addicted to a parasitic mode of
living.

Among the most familiar examples of saprophytic fleshy fungi are
those commonly known as mushrooms, toadstools, puffballs. shelf or
bracket fungi, cup-fungi, etc. And among these plants occur the largest
and showiest species of fungi as well as those of the highest structural
types. Thus some of them, as the giant puffball, often attain a weight
of several pounds, others assume strange and pleasing forms while strik-
ing and even beautiful colorings are not rarely present. A few of them
are known to. be highly poisonous while a comparatively large number
possess edible qualities of a high order.

So far comparatively little work has been done with this class of plants
in Michigan. The late Prof. G. H. Hicks, while instructor in botany at
the Michigan Agricultural College from 1891-1893, made a considerable
collection of such material but published very little in regard to it. This
material, which was recently purchased by the botanical department of
the Agricultural College, contains several species which have served to
extend this list.

Mr. Henry C, Beardslee has given valuable aid in the preparation of this
list by furnishing a list of eighty-two species of fungi collected by him
near Avery lake in Montmorency county.

Mr. R. E. Matteson has also kindly furnished a list of species identified
by him near the city of Grand Rapids.

Thanks are also due the following persons for specimens sent to us
from time to time :

Dr. R. H. Stevens, president of the Detroit Mycological Club, Detroit,
Michigan.

Dr. Harold Wilson, Detroit.
15

114- , MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

S. M. Keenan, Eloise, Michigan.

H. T. Blodgett, Liidington. Michijiaii.

Dr. Post, Lansing, Michigan.

Chas. J. Davis, Lansing. Michigan.

C. G. Lloyd of Cincinnati, Ohio, has very kindly aided in the identifica-
tion of gasteromycetes.

We are especially indebted to Prof. Chas. H. Peck of Albany, X. Y.,
who has given invalnabh^ aid in the identification of material.

Our own work along this line was begun in 1896 and a list containing
268 species of saprophytic fungi and 40 species of myxomycetes Avas pub-
lished in the report of the secretary to the t^tate Board of Agriculture for
1898. Most of our collecting was at first done in the vicinity of the
Agricultural College but the following localities have been visited with
reference to a studv of their fungus flora :

Grand Ledge, Eaton county.

Island Lake, Hamburg Station, Brighton, Livingston county.

Stockbridge, Grass Lake and Pleasant Lake, Jackson county.

Leslie and Onondaga, Ingham count}'.

Greenville, Montcalm county.

Mr. Bronson Barlow of Greenville Avas emploj^ed to collect material in
the vicinity of that place during Sept. and Oct., 1900, the material being
sent to us in moist sphagnum while still fresh. This material furnished
a number of rare species.

Mr. Barlow also collected during a few days in Sept., 1901, in Mar-
quette county.

During the summer of 1901, Prof. C. F. Wheeler spent two weeks at the
U. P. Experimental Farm at Chatham, Alger county, and collected con-
siderable material. He has also helped in the collection of a large part of
the material from which this list is compiled, especially of the species
found in the vicinity of the Agricultural College.

It Avill be seen that only a limited portion of our great State has fur-
nished the material here listed, and furthermore considerable of this
material still remains unidentified. Moreover but little attention has
been given to a study of the Saprophytic Ascomycetes, the Pyrenomycetes
in particular have been almost entirely neglected.

A careful study of the fungus fiora of the pine-bearing regions in the
State would doubtless furnish many additions to this list, and the fact
that such regions are fast losing their characteristic growth of timber
enhances the desirability of obtaining such species.

From the material collected in the State a number of species new to
science have been njimed and several others, not before reported in this
country, have been recognized. The identification of dried specimens of
fleshy fungi is often a difficult and uncertain mailer especially if no
drawings and notes accompany the specimens. Furthermore as there is
no handy manual of the American fleshy fungi, such as may be
readily obtained for the systematic study of the higher ])lants, there is
not much to encourage the local amateur botanists in our State to make
an extended and careful study of these plants. It is hoped, hoAvever, that
this list although incomplete, and probably somewhat imperfect, may be
of use to those interested in a study of the fungus flora of our country
and that it may stimulate an interest in such work in this State.

Saccardo's Sylloge Fungorum has been largely folloAved in the matter
of nomenclature and arrangement of species.

LONGYEAR ON MICHIGAN FUNGI. 115

Order Hymeuomycetese.
Family Agaricinea;.

Agaricus abruptus Pk. Woods. Not uncommon. Summer.

Agaricus arvensis Schaeff. B'ields and roadsides. Not plentiful. Summer.

Agaricus campester L. Fields and gardens. Common. Summer and autumn.

A. campester var. hortensis. The cultivated form.

Agaricus diminutivus Pk. Woods. Rare. Summer.

Agaricus placomyces Pk. Woods. Not uncommon. Summer.

Agaricus pusillus Pk. n. sp. Described from material collected at Detroit by
Dr. R. H. Stevens. Also collected on campus of Agricultural College.

Agaricus Rodmani Pk. Pastures. Uncommon. Summer.

Agaricus silvaticus Schaeff. Woods. Uncommon. Summer.

Amanita Frostiana Pk. Woods. Not abundant. Summer. Poisonoug.

Amanita muscaria Fr. Woods and shady places. Not abundant. Summer and
autumn. Poisonous.

Amanita phalloides Fr. Woods. Very common. Summer and autumn. Poi-
sonous.

Amanita rubesceus Fr. Woods, common. Summer and autumn.

Amanita verna Fr. Woods. Comm.on. Summer and autumn. Poisonous.

Amanitopsis vaginata Roze. Woods. Common. Summer and autumn.

Annularia mammillata Longyear. Described in 3d annual report of Michigan
Academy of Science, 1901, as follows: Pileus 1.7 cm. broad, plane with margin a
little elevated when mature, disk raised in the form of a prominent mammilliform
umbo, flesh very thin, soft, surface minutely roughish, whitish except the umbo
which is lemon-yellow; gills free, ventricose, broad, thin, somewhat crowded,
3 mm. broad, pale flesh color; stem 3.5 cm. long 1.5 mm. thick at apex, gradually-
enlarging to the base which is 3 mm. thick, smooth above and silky below the
ring, white; ring membranous, persistent, white; cystidia spindle-shaped, swollen
In the middle 20x50 microns, spores subglobose, smooth, pale flesh color 5-6
microns. On decaying logs in woods. Greenville, July 16, 1900.

This little agaric is evidently rare, only one specimen being found, and is espe-
cially interesting because no species of this genus seem to have been thus far
recorded as occurring in this country.

The striking character of the specimen is the prominent yellow umbo which
rises abruptly from the flattened pileus.

Armillaria mellea Vahl. Woods, very abundant. Autumn.

Cantharellus aurantiacus Fr. Woods. Not uncommon. Summer.

Cantharellus cibarius Fr. Woods. Summer and autumn. Common.

Cantharellus cinnabarinus Schw. Woods. Not common. Summer and autumn.

Cantharellus dichotomus Pk. Swampy places. Rare. Autumn.

Claudopus byssisedus Pers. On old wood in damp places. Lewiston. Beardslee.

Claudopus nidulans (Pers.) Pk. On logs. Not rare.

Clitocybe albissima Pk. Found at Greenville. Barlow.

Clitocybe caespitosa Pk.

Clitocybe candicans Pers. (Hicks 111.)

Clitocybe clavipes Pk. Collected at Greenville. Barlow.

Clitocybe connexus Pk. Found once at Pleasant Lake, Jackson county.

Clitocybe cyathiformis Bull. Woods. Not common. Summer.

Clitocybe dealbata Sow. Lawns and pastures. Autumn. Common.

Clitocybe illudens Schw. Near stumps. Common. Sun^mer.

Clitocybe gigantea Sow. Woods. Not common. Summer.

Clitocybe infundibuliformis Schaeff. Woods. Abundant. Summer.

Clitocybe multioeps Pk. Near decaying wood. Common. Spring to autumn.

Clitocybe nebularis Batsch. Sent one from Ludington. Blodgett.

Clitocybe odora Bull. Woods. Plentiful. Summer.

Clitocybe sinopica Fr. Woods and groves. Not common. Summer.

Clitopilus abortivus B. & C. Woods. Abundant. Summer.

Clitopilus albogriseus Pk. In cedar swamps, I found this species quite plentiful
during the wet weather in August. Lewiston. Beardslee.

Clitopilus CEespitosus Pk. Woods near M. A. C. October, 1898.

Clitopilus micropus Pk. Sandy pastures. Not rare. Summer.

Clitopilus noveboracensis Pk. var. brevis Pk. Woods, M. A. C. Found once.

Clitopilus prunulus Scop. Woods. Not common. Summer.

Collybia alcalinolens Pk. Swamps. Not common. Autumn.

Collybia colorea Pk. Decaying pine. Greenville. July.

Collybia confluens Pers. Woods. Abundant. Summer and autumn.

116 MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

Collybia dryophila Bull. Woods. Very common. Summer and autumn.

Collybia expallens Pk. Found once. Agricultural College.

Collybia familia. Pk. Decayed wood. Found once. Summer. Decaying hem-
lock, Lewiston, Beardslee.

Collybia lachnophylla Berk. (C. spinuUfera Pk.) On decaying wood in woods.
Not rare.

Collybia lentinoides Pk. Swamp.s. Not common. Summer.

Collybia myriadophylla Pk. Low places on decaying wood. [Tncommon. Agri-
cultural College, Lewiston, Beardslee.

Collybia platyphylla Fr. Near decaying wood. Common. Summer and autumn.

Collybia radicata Relh. Woods and near stumps. Very common. Summer and
autumn.

Collybia scorzonerea Batsch. Agricultural College woods. Rare. Summer.

Collybia stipitaria Fr. I find two forms of this plant. One grows on pine
needles and is very slender. The other grows on fallen branches and is larger
and has a shorter stipe. Lewiston, Beardslee.

Collybia succosa Pk. Old logs in woods. Onondaga. Found once. Lewiston,
Beardslee.

C. tuberosa Bull. Growing on decaying Coprinus micaceus, in woods. Lewiston,
Beardslee.

Collybia velutipes Fr. On wood. Very abundant. Autumn.

Collybia zonata Pk. Decaying wood. Uncommon.

Coprinus atramentarius Fr. Gardens and grassy places. Plentiful. Summer and
autumn.

Coprinus comatus Fr. Rich soil in open places. Common. Summer and autumn.

Coprinus ephemeris Fr. Found once, at Greenville.

Coprinus fimetarius var. macrorhiza Fr. Greenhouse bench, M. A. C.

Coprinus micaceus Fr. About stumps and trees. Abundant. Spring to autumn.

Coprinus plicatilis Fr. Door yards, etc. Common. Spring to autumn.

Coprinus pulchrifoJius Pk. Grassy places and woods. Not uncommon. Spring
to autumn.

Coprinus quadrifidus Pk. On or near decaying wood. Greenville and M. A. C.
Spring and summer.

Coprinus tomentosus Fr. Woods. Once found. July.

Cortinarius cinnamomeus Fr. Woods. Not common. Summer.

Cortinarius violaceus Fr. Woods. Not plentiful. Summer and autumn.

Crepidotus fulvotomentosus Pk. Decaying sticks and limbs. Plentiful. Si)ring
to autumn.

Crepidotus herbarum Pk. Ou old logs in woods. Lewiston, Beardslee.

Crepidotus sepiarius Pk. n. sp. On oak rails. M. A. C. Described in Bull.
Torr. Bot. Club, vol. 25,- No. 6; June, 1898, p. 324. .

Ecciiia atrides Lasch. Swampy woods. Greenville. July. Rare.

Eccilia griseo-rubella Lasch. Swam.py woods. Greenville. July. Rare.

Entoloma Grayanum Pk. Woods. Summer. Not rare.

Entoloma jubatum Fr. Woods, M. A. C. Foimd once.

Entoloma strictior Pk. Campus, M. A. C. Not common.

Flammula alnicola Fr. Woods, M. A. C. Found once.

Flammula flavida Pers. Chandlers. June. Found once.

Flammula Highlandensis Pk. On burned soil. Summer. Not plentiful.

Galera crispa Longyear n. sp. Described in Bot. Gazette, October, 1899; p. 272,
Common. June and July. Dooryards and meadows.

Galera hypnorum Batsch. On mosses in the cedar swamps. Lewiston, Beardslee.

Galera lateritia Fr. Dooryards and meadows. Abundant. Summer.

Galera tener Schaeff. Lawns and meadows. Common. Summer.

Galera tener var. pilosella Pk. Manured places. Not uncommon. Summer.

Hebeloma gregarium Pk. Ground under spruce trees. Common. Summer and
autumn.

Hygrophorus borealis Pk. Shady ground. M. A. C. Autumn.

Hygrophorus cantharellus Schw. Low woods. Common. Summer.

Hygrojihorus chlorophanus Fr. Common. Lewiston. Beardslee.

Hygrophorus conicus Fr. Lawns and tneadows. Common. Summer.

Hygrophorus la?tus Fr. In cedar swamps. Lev/iston, Beardslee.

Hygrophorus marginatus Pk. Moist woods. Pleasant Lake. Rare. Summer.

Hygrophorus miniatus Fr. Moist woods. Uncommon. Summer.

Hygrophorus miniatus var. sphagnophilus Pk. Moist woods. Pleasant Lake.
Uncommon. Summer.

LONGYEAR ON MICHIGAN FUNGI. 117

Hygrophonis nitidus B. & Rav. I^ow ground. Greenville. Rare. Summer.
Hygrophorus paludosus Pk. n. sp. Woods. Greenville. Barlow. Described in
Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 29, Feb.. 1902.

Hygrophorus unguinosus Fr. Wood.s. Pleasant Lake. One specimen found.
Summer.

Lycoperdon cyathiforme Bosc. Common in fields and pastures. Summer.
Lycoperdon echinatum Pers. (Hicks 791, 1367.)
Hypholoma appendiculatum Bull. Woods. M. A. C. Summer.
Hypholoma caudolleanum Fr. Shady places. Uncommon. Summer.
Hypholoma incertum Pk. Lawns. Common. Summer.
Hypholoma lachrymabundum Fr. Dooryard. Onondaga. Summer.
Hypholoma perplexum Pk. Near stumps and buried wood. Very plentiful.
Autumn.

Inocybe deglubens Fr. Roadside, M. A. C, June.

Inocybe eutheles B. & Br. Under evergreens. Rare. Lewiston, Beardslee.
Inocybe infelix Pk. Sandy soil, M. A. C, June.
Inocybe lacerus Fr. In woods. Common. Lewiston, Beardslee.
Inocybe rimosa Bull. Woods. Greenville, Pleasant Lake. Summer.
Inocybe scaber Mull. Along paths in woods. Lewiston, Beardslee.
Inocybe subfulva Pk. M. A. C. woods, along path. July.
Inocybe subtomentosa Pk.

Laccaria amethystina Bolt. Woods, Greenville. Barlow.
Laccaria laccata Scop. Common in woods. Summer and autumn.
Laccaria tortilis Bolt. Woods. Not plentiful. Summer.

3. Lactarius brevipes Longyear. Described in 3d annual repoft of Michigan
Academy of Science, 1901, as follows: Pileus 1.5-3 cm., broad, convex when young,
becoming plane and depressed, margin inrolled, dry, whitish-pruinose, reddish tan
when rubbed, obsoletely zoned, flesh white; gills adnexed, very narrow, pale
tawny, thin, sometimes branched. Stem .6-1.3 cm. long, about two-thirds as broad,
equal or tapering downward, smooth, white, solid; spores globose, echinulate,
6 microns. Milk white, becoming light yellow on exposure to air, slowly acrid and
astringent to taste, odorless. Growing on moss-covered ground in oak woods.
Pleasant Lake, July 27 and 30, 1900.

On account of the short stem the pileus appears to rest on the ground. The
species seems somewhat closely related to L. thejogalus. Bull, but is much smaller,
while the dry instead of viscid pileus and the very short stem serve to distinguish
it from that species.

Lactarius chelidonium Pk. Greenville. Autumn. Barlow.

Lactarius deliciosus Fr. Found only twice in a mossy swamp. Lewiston,
Beardslee.

Lactarius griseus Pk. On old mossy logs in a cedar swamp. Lewiston, Beardslee.
Lactarius distans Pk. Not uncommon in woods. Summer.
Lactarius indigo Schw. Woods. Uncommon. Summer and autumn.
Lactarius insulsus Fr. Onondaga, August, 1900. Woods.

Lactarius rufus Scop. Occurred in large numbers in a swamp near M. A. C.
during 1898.
Lactarius subdulcis Fr. Plentiful in moist and low woods. Summer and autumn.
Lactarius subpurpureus Pk. In cedar swamps. Milk dark red. The pileus is
a peculiar shade of gray red. Lewiston, Beardslee.

Lactarius subserifluus Longyear 277. Described in 3d annual report of Mich-
igan Academy of Science, 1901, as follows: Pileus 1.5-2 cm., broad, flesh thin,
convex or plane, depressed around the papilliform umbo, fulvous or light brick-
red, sometimes slightly irregular, dry, glabrous, margin somewhat crenate; gills
concolorous. thickish, subdistant, rather broad, adnatodecurrent. Stem 1.5-2.5
cm., long 2-3 mm. thick, gradually enlarged toward the base, colored like the pileus,
smooth, glabrous, base paler and pruinose, hollow; milk watery like serum, mild,
odorless; spores globose, echinulate. 6-8 microns. Growing on naked or mossy
soil in upland woods. Leslie, July 24, 1900.

The few specimens found were growing in company with a small form of L.
subdulcis Fr. which the species much resembles and from which it is distinguished
by its more distant, broader gills and clear milk. It is closely related to L. serl-
fluus Fr., but is separated by its smaller size, umbonate pileus, and more distant
gills. The latter species, moreover, is described as growing in moist or damp
places.

Lactarius torminosus Fr. Woods. Common. Summer. ,

118 MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

I.actarius trivialis Fr. Onondaga, August, 1900. Lewiston, in damp woods.
Beardslee.

Lactarius volemus Fr. Woods. Common. Summer and autumn.

Lentinus cochleatus Fr. M. A. C, August, 1897.

Lentinus lepideus Fr. Common on decaying wood, especially of coniferte. Sum-
mer.

Lentinus strigosus Fr. Common on decaying wood.

Lentinus tigrinus Fr. On decaying wood.

Lenzites betulinus Fr. Very plentiful on stumps and logs. Autumn. Var. rufo-
zonata Pk.

Lenzites crataegi Berk. Decaying wood.

Lenzites Klotschii Berk. Lewiston, Beardslee.

Lenzites s«?piaria Fr. Common on wood of coniferete.

Lenzites vialis Pk. Plentiful on stumps and logs.

Lepiota acutesquamqsa Weinm. Common about decayed wood in woods; also
occurs in forcing houses. Summer and autumn.

Lepiota alluviinus Pk. Among shrubs on campus M. A. C, August, 1900.

Lepiota americana Pk. Ludington. Blodgett.

I.iepiota cepaestipes Sow. Ludington, Sept. 1900. Blodgett.

Lepiota cristata A. & S. Plentiful in woods. Summer and autumn; also occurs
in forcing house beds.

Lepiota cyanozonata Longyear. Described in .3d annual report of Michigan
Academy of Science, 1901, as follows: Pileus 1-1.8 cm., broad, thin except at the
disc, conico-convex becoming expanded and broadly umbonate, minutely fibrillose
when young, soon glabrous, margin slightly uneven, creamy or pinkish white with
a narrow zone of light blue near the margin, brownish tan when dry; gills free,
])ut close to the stem, scarcely crowded, thin, soft, whitish, becoming dingy
l)rown on drying.

Stem 2-:3 cm. long 2 mm., thick, equal, apex smooth, minutely silky, scaly below
narrowly fitulose, whitish, attached by strigose fibers; spores white, globose 6-8
microns.

Growing on decaying sticks on ground in woods. Leslie, July 23, 1900.

Considerable doubt is felt as to the true generic position of this little fungus as
it seems somewhat intermediate between Collybia and Lepiota. One small unex-
pandad specim.en possessed a delicate fibrous veil similar to that found in the
■•^eniTs Cortinarius, but only the merest remains of it could be found in
mature specimens. The flesh of pileus and stem, however, appears to be distinct,
and becomes brownish where bruised. Its striking feature is the delicate blue
marginal zone which is suggestive of the specific name.

Lepiota illinitus Fr. Woods, M. A. C, Aug., 1900.

Lepiota metulfpspora B. & Br. Woods, M. A. C. Au.g., 1900.

Lepiota Morgani Pk. Roadsides, meadows and cultivated places. Once reported
as occurring in woods. Common. Summer and autumn.

Lepiota naucinoides Pk. Plentiful in fields, orchards and manured soil. Au-
tumn.

Lepiota procera Scop. Common in woods. Summer and autumn.

I epiota pusillomyces Pk. Common in woods. Summer and autumn.

Lepiota rubrotincta Pk. Common, on campus, M. A. C. Summer.

leptonia asprella Fr. This species was found in some abundance in the cedar
swamps growing in the moss. Beardslee.

Jjeptoi-'ia formosa Fr. Growing in cedar swamps, frequent. Beardslee.

I.eptcmia rosea Longyear. Described in 3d annual report of Michigan Academy
■of Science, 1901, as follows: Pileus 3-3. .5 cm. broad, flesh thin, convex, obtuse
and depressed at the disc, not striate, roughened with brownish fibrils on a roseate
ground color disc darker; gills adnate with a slight tooth, fi mm. broad, whitish
thin flesh-color, not crowded; stem 7-8 cm. long, slender, slightly thickened at apex
and base, roseate, base whitened with mycelium, cartilaginous, smooth, sufEed;
spores flesh color, angular. 7-8x10-12 microns.

Burnt soil on a sandy hillside, Kent county, July 14, 1900.

The slender, erect form and pleasing color make this an attractive looking
fungus. The specific name was suggested by the prevailing rose-color of the
pileus and stem, this color being modified in places by brownish tints. Only two
specimens were found.

leptonia serrulata Pers. In cedar swamps. Common. Beardslee.

Marasmius cjimpanulatus Pk. Woods. M. A. C. Summer.

Marasmius opiphyllus Fr. Decaying leaves in woods.

LONGYEAR ON MICHIGAN FUNGI. 119

Marasmius foetans Fr. On log in woods, M. A. C.

Marasmius glabellas Pk. Not uncommon on leaves in woods.

Marasmius graminium Berk. On leaves and stems of dead grass. M. A. C.

Marasmius oreades Fr. Forming rings in grass on lawns and grassy places.
Plentiful. Summer and autumn.

Marasmius polj'phyllns Pk. Not uncommon on decaying grass and leaves.

Marasmius rigidus Mont (Hicks).

Marasmius rotula Fr. Very common on sticks and leaves in woods.

Marasmius scorodonius Fr. On bark of trees. Not plentiful.

Marasmius spongiosus B. & C. In grass under trees, especially oak.

Marasmius velutipes B. & C. (Hicks.)

Mycena acicula Schaeff. (Hicks.)

Mycena alcalina Fr. Under trees, campus, M. A. C. Rare.

Mycena capillaris Schum (Hicks).

Mycena corticola Fr. Common on bark of trees.

Mycena cyaneobasis Pk. Chandlers, Aug., 1900.

Mycena epipterigeus Scop. On old logs. Viscid throughout. Beardslee.

Mycena haematopus Pers. On old logs. Common. Beardslee.

Mycena galericulata Scop. Very common in woods.

Mycena Leaiana Berk. On decaying logs in woods. Not uncommon. Summer,

Mycena pura Pers. Chandlers, June, 1901. In swamps. Not rare. Beardslee.

Mycena rubro-marginata Fr. I found in woods on pine logs a mycena with the
anargin of the lamellae dark purple. I do not feel sure of its identity. It may be
well to record it here to show the occurence of one species of this section. When
found again it should be carefully studied. Beardslee.

Mycena sanguinolenta A. & S. In sphagnum. Summer.

Naucoria pediades Fr. Common on lawns and roadsides. Summer.

Naucoria Pennsylvanica B. & C. (Hicks.)

Naucoria semiorbicularis Bull. Plentiful on lawns and pastures. Summer.

Nolanea Babingtonia Blox. This little species seems to be seldom detected in the
United States, whether from rarity or from its unobtrusive character I am not
sure. It appeared after rains at Lewiston and could be found frequently, though
never was it found in any abundance, and never was it easy to detect. It usually
v/as found in wet moss, where its dull color made it difficult to detect. Beardslee.

Nolanea mammosa Linn. In cedar swamps, frequent. Beardslee.

Omphalia campanella Batsch. Very common on decaying \Y00d of coniferse.

Omphalia cyphoides Fr. Dead leaves in woods. Greenville, July, 1900.

Omphalia fibula Bull. Not uncommon among mosses in moist woods. Summer.

Omphalia fibuloides Pk. In moss, June, 1898, Jackson Co.

Omphalia gracillima Wain. Onondaga, July, 1900.

Omphalia pyxidata Bull. Campus, M. A. C. Rare.

Omphalia umbratilis Fr. Chandlers, June, 1901.

Panaeolus campanulatus L. Manured ground. Summer.

Panteolus papilionaceus Fr. Manured ground. Summer. \

Panaeolus solidipes Pk. Onondaga and M. A. C, July. Rare.

Panus conchatus Fr. On stumps. Summer.

Panus dorsalis Bosc. (Hicks 108.)

Panus salacinus Pk. (Hicks 4, 34.)

Panus stypticus Fr. Very common on stumps and logs.

Paxillus porosus Berk. Common in shaded places. Summer.

Gomphidius rhodoxanthus Schw. Pleasant Lake, July and Aug., 1901.

Pholiota adiposa Fr. On basswood log. Grand Ledge, Oct., 1900.

Pholiota fulvosquamosa Pk. n. sp. Named from specimens collected at base
of oak tree on campus M. A. C, Sept., 1901. Bui. Torr. Bot. Club. Feb., 1903, p. 95.

Pholiota Howeana Pk. (Hicks 1761.)

Pholiota marginata Batsch. In woods on the ground. Beardslee.

Pholiota muricata Fr. Not rare. This species was at first referred to P.
-curvipes. It has. however, been submitted to Presadalo and referred by him here.
It seems to affect beech logs particularly. Lewiston, Beardslee.

Pholiota mycenoides Fr. On mosses in a cedar swamp. Only found twice.
Beardslee.,

Pholiota praecox Pers. Var. minor Batt. Common on lawns and meadows.
Spring and summer.

Pholiota squarrosa Mull. M. A. C, Sept., 1901.

Pholiota togularis Bull. In wet places. My plant was seen by Peck and by him

120 MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

referred here. It was a stouter stipe than the type and may not belong here.
Beardslee.

Pleurotus atropellitus Pk. On decaying wood. Not uncommon.

Pleurotus ostreatus Fr. Decaying logs and trunks. Rare.

Pleurotus petaloides Fr. On logs. Not plentiful.

Pleurotus sapidus Kalchb. Common on trunks and logs. Spring to autumn.

Pleurotus serrctinus Fr. On logs. Not common.

Pleurotus ulmarius Bull. On elm trunks. Not common. Autumn.

Pluteolus expansus Pk. On lawns. Uncommon. Spring and summer.

Pluteus admirabilis Pk. On old mossy logs. Not plentiful.

Pluteus cervinus Schaeff. Very common about stumps and much decayed wood.
Spring to autumn.

Pluteus granulans Pk. On old logs frequent. Beardslee.

Pluteus leoninus (Schaeff) Pers. M. A. C, 1900.

Pluteus longistriatus Pk. On logs in woods. Not plentiful.

Pluteus nanus Pers. On old logs. The pileus of this species is distinctly prui-
nose. It is smaller than any of the other species I have observed. Beardslee.

Pluteus subtomentosulus Pk. On an old log. Pure \vhite and tomentose through-
out. Beardslee.

Psathyrella disseminata Pers. Common in moist soil. Summer.

Psilocybe foonisecii Pers. On lawns and meadows. Plentiful. Summer.

Russula alutacea Fr. Common in woods. Summer.

Russula emetica Fr. Common on low ground. Summer.

Russula fcetans Pers. Common in woods. Summer and autumn.

Russula lepida Fr. Common in woods. Summer.

Russula pulverulenta Pk. n. sp. Named from a single specimen found at Pleas-
ant Lake, July, 1900. Described in Bull, of Torrey Bot. Club, Feb., 1902.

Russula rubra Fr. In low woods. Pleasant Lake, July, 1900.

Russula vesca Fr. Woods. Pleasant Lake, July, 1900. A single specimen.

Russula virescens Fr. Common in woods. Summer.

Schizophyllum commune Fr. Very common on decaying timber.

Strophai'ia aei-uginosa Curt. Ludington, Oct., 1899. Blodgett.

Stropharia semiglobata Batsch. Common on manured soil. Summer.

Tricholoma album Schaeff. (Hicks 719.)

Tricholoma alboflavidum Pk. Common in woods. Summer.

Tricholoma equestre L. Greenville, Sept. and Oct., 1900. Barlow.

Tricholoma fuligineum Pk. Greenville, July, 1900.

Tricholoma ionides Bull. Marquette Co., Sept., 1901. Barlow. A single specimen.

Tricholoma laterarium Pk. Common in woods. Summer.

Tricholoma Peckii Howe. Greenville, Sept. and Oct., 1900. Barlow.

Tricholoma personatum Fr. Var. bulbosum Pk. Comiuon in woods. Summer
and autumn.

Tricholoma tricolor Pk. Leslie, July, 1900. U. P. Exp. Sta., 1900. Wheeler.

Tubaria furfuracea Pers. Common on decaying wood and herbage. Spring.

Tubaria luteoalba Longyear. Described in Bot. Gazette. Oct., 1899. On decaying
vegetation on wet ground. Rare, M. A. C.

Trogia crispa Fr. Common on limbs and branches.

Volvaria pusilla Pers. Naked soil. Not common.

Volvaria speciosa Fr. In soil full of decaying vegetation. Not plentiful. Sum-
mer.
Family Polyporese.

Boletinus pictus Pk. In evergreen woods. Lewiston, Beardslee.

Boletus Americanus Pk. I frequently found this species in places wehere the fire
had recently been through. Beardslee.

Boletus brevipes Pk. Near conifers. Uncommon. Summer.

Boletus castaneus Bull. Woods. Common. Summer and autumn.

Boletus chrysenteron Fr. Woods. Common. Summer and autumn.

Boletus chrysenteron var. albocarneum Pk. Woods. Rare. Summer. Green-
ville.

Boletus Clintonianus Pk. Woods and shady places. Not plentiful. Autumn.

Boletus cyanescens Bull. Woods. Uncommon. Summer and autumn.

Boletus felleus Bull. Woods and shady places. Common. Summer and autumn.

Boletus flavidus Fr. Near conifers. Not common. Summer.

Boletus Frostii Russell. Woods. Rare. Summer.

B. granulatus L. In open woods. Lewiston, Beardslee.

Boletus griseus Frost. Woods. Rare. Summer.

LONGYEAR ON MICHIGAN FUNGI. 121

Boletus luteus L. In pine woods. Lewiston, Beardslee.

Boletus mutabilis Morgan. Woods. Not common. Summer.

Boletus piperatus Bull. Open places. Common. Summer.

Boletus Russelli Frost. Woods. Rare. Summer.

B. scaber Fr. In woods. Not common around Lewiston. Beardslee. Found once
along roadside, Livingston Co.

Boletus spectabilis Pk. This species is quite abundant in a cold sphagnum
swamp near Avery Lake. It is a striking species, and probably was the most
abundant species of Boletus which 1 detected in Michigan. I have never seen it in
any other place. The spores are a rich brown. Beardslee. Greenville, Barlow.

Boletus subluteus Pk. Woods. Rare. Autumn. Greenville.

Boletus subtomentosus L. Woods. Not common. Summer.

Boletus vermiculosus Pk. Woods. Not common. Summer.

Daedalea confragosa var. polyporoides Pk. On decaying log. Woods, M. A. C.

Dsedalea unicolor Bull. Decaying wood. Very common.

Favolus canadensis Kl. Limbs and stick. Very common.

Fistulina firma Pk. Greenville. Autumn. Barlow.

Fistulina hepatica Fr. Greenville. Autumn. Barlow.

Fomes albogriseus Pk. n. sp. Named from a single specimen found on tamarack
at Greenville.

Fomes leucophaeus Mont. Decaying logs and trunks. Very abundant.

Fomes carneus Nees. Decaying logs and trunks. Common.

Fomes conchatus Fr. Decaying logs. Common.

Fomes connatus Fr. M, A. C. Found once.

Fomes fomentarius Fr. Logs, stumps, etc. Abundant.

Fomes nigricans Fr. Dead poplar. Common.

Fomes pinicola Fr. On trunks and logs of coniferous trees. Common.

Merulius corium Fr. (Hicks.)

Merulius lacrymans Fr.

Merulius tremellosus Schrad. Common on logs and stumps.

Polyporus adustus Fr. Very common on rotting timber.

Polyporus arcularius Fr. Common on sticks and stumps.

Polyporus Berkeley! Fr. (Polyporus Beattici Banning?) Lansing and Pleasant
Lake. At base of oak trees. Summer.

Polyporus betulinus Fr. Plentiful on dead birch.

Polyporus brumalis Fr. Common on sticks and limbs. Autumn to spring.

Polyporus chioneus Fr. Onondaga and Pleasant Lake, 1900.

Polyporus ciunabarinus Fr. Common on decaying wood.

Polyporus elegans Fr. Common on sticks in woods.

Polyporus fragrans Pk. On elm logs.

Polyporus frondosus Fr. M. A. C. woods, Oct., 1901.

Polyporus galactinus Berk. Lewiston, Beardslee.

Polyporus gilvus Schw. Common on oak limbs.

Polyporus lucidus Fr. On stumps and at base of trees,

Polyporus obtusus Berk.

Polyporus Pilotce Schw.

Polyporus poripes Fr. M. A. C, Oct., 1897.

Polyporus radicatus Schw., Around stumps. Uncommon.

Polyporus resinosus Fr. Very plentiful on logs.

Polyporus Schweinitzii Fr. Occurs on larch stumps in summer.

Polyporus sulphureus Fr. Common on logs and stumps. Summer.

Polyporus umbellatus Fr. Leslie, July, 1900. One specimen.

Polvstictus abietinus Fr. Common on bark of coniferae.

Polystictus biformis Kl. On beech stump, M. A. C.

Polystictus circinatus Fr. Greenville, Sept., 1900. Barlow.

Polystictus conchifer Schw. Common on dead limbs of elm.

Polystictus hirsutus Fr. Common everywhere on wood.

Polystictus molliusculus Berk. On decaying timber.

Polystictus parvulus Kl. On sandy soil. Not rare.

Polystictus perennis Fr. Common on sandy soil.

Polystictus pergamenus Fr. Very common on decaying timber.

Polystictus radiatus Fr. Plentiful on decaying wood.

Polystictus simillimus Pk. Growing in sandy soil with P. parvulus Kl. Pleasant
Lake, July, 1901.

Polystictus versicolor L. Abundant everywhere on dead timber.

Polystictus zonatus Fr. On decaying wood.
16

122 MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

Poria attenuata Pk. M. A. C, 1898.

Poria epilintea B. & Br. (Hicks 118.)

Poria ferruginosa Fr. (Hicks.)

Poria nitida A. & S. Greenville, 1901. Barlow.

Poria obducens Pers. (Hicks 2.34.)

Poria subacida Pk. On tamarack log. Onondaga, 1897.

Strobilomyces strobilaceus Berk. Very common in woods. Summer.

Trametes funalis Fr. On bitternut stump. Greenville, Oct., 1900. Barlow.

Trametes Ohiensis B. & C. Common on oak rails and logs.

Trametes Piceina Pk. On tamarack log, Onondaga, 1897.

Trametes Pini Fr. I.ewiston, Beardslee.

Trametes sepium Berk. Common on decaying wood of conifers.
Family Hydneae.

Grandinia granulosa Fr. Decaying wood. Common.

Hydnum adustum Schw. Decaying sticks on ground. Greenville, M. A. C. Un-
common.

Hydnum auriscalpium L. Old pine cones on ground. M. A. C. Autumn.

Hydnum caput-ursi Fr. Dead trunks. Common. Summer and autumn.

Hydnum coralloides Scop. Logs in woods. Not uncommon. S. & A.

Hydnum erinaceum Bull. (Hicks 41.)

Hydnum himantia Schw. Decaying wood in forests. Not common.

Hydnum imbricatum L. Greenville. Barlow.

Hydnum nigrum Fr. Found growing on the margin of a swamp. Blue black
throughout, coal black within. Beardslee.

Hydnum ochraceum Pers. Decaying limbs, in woods. Common.

Hydnum repandum L. Woods. Common.

Hydnum septentrionale Fr. Dead trunks. Uncommon.

Irpex ambiguus Pk. On decaying sticks. Woods, M. A. C.

Irpex cinnamomeus Fr. Decaying limbs in woods. Plentiful.

Irpex lacteus Fr. Common on decaying limbs.

Irpex obliquus Fr. Decaying limbs.

Irpex tulipifera Schw. (Hicks 107.)

Knieffia setigera Fr. (Hicks 123.) !

Odontia fimbriata Fr. M. A. C. on decaying wood. Uncommon.

Odontia fusca C. & E. Greenville, 1901. Barlow.

Phlebia merismoides Fr. (Hicks 115.)

Phlebia pileata Pk. Common on dead poplar.

Phlebia radiata Fr. On decaying wood.

Phlebia spilomea B. & C. (Hicks 77, 266.)

Phlebia zonata B. & C. (Hicks 133.)

Porothelium lacerum Fr. On dead timber. Not common.

Radulum Bennettii B. & C? (Hicks.)

Radulum molare Fr. On rotting wood. Common.
Family Thelephorese.

Coniophora arida Karst. On old pine boards.

Corticium alutarium B. & C. (Hicks 265.)

Corticium evolvens Fr. Decaying limbs. Not common.

Corticium incarnatum Fr. (Hicks 99, 138, 258.)

Corticium lactescens Berk. (Hicks 195, 253.)

Corticium lacteum Fr. (Hicks 135, 255.)

Corticium laave Pers. (Hicks 147, 148, 156.)

Corticium lilacinofuscum B. & C. Decaying wood. Common.

Corticium mutatum Pk. On decaying poplar. Common.

Corticium oakesii B. & C. On oak trees. Common.

Corticium pezizoideum (Schw.) Schrenck. On dead poplar. Common.

Corticium polygonium Pers.? (Hicks 80.)

Corticium populinum Pers.? (Hicks 2.30.)

Corticium portentosum B. & C? (Hicks 242.)

Corticium scutellare B. & C? (Hicks 137, 155. 183.)

Corticium simillimum Pk. n. sp. On oak. M. A. C.

Craterellus oornucopioides Pers. Sandy soil in woods and open places. Common.
Summer.

Craterellus lutescens (Pers.) Fr. Arenac Co.. Aug. C. F. Wheeler.

Cyphella pezizoides Zopf. On basswood limbs. M. A. C.

Hymenochgete agglutinans Ellis. On oak limbs. Common.

Hymenocha'te corrugata Berk. Decaying limbs. M. A. C.

LONGYEAM ON MICHIGAN FUNGr. 123

llymenochsete rubiginosa Lev. On limbs and logs. M. A. C.

Hymenochiete tabacina Lev. On limbs. Woods. M. A. C.

Peniophora cinerea Pers. (Hicks 170, 171.)

Peniopliora cinerescens (Schw.) Sacc. On dead trunks. M. A. C-

Peniophora quercina Fr. (Hicks 198.)

Peniophora vehitina Fr. (Hicks 180.)

Solenia anomala Pers. On dead trunks and branches.

Solenia anomaloides Pk. n. sp. Described in Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, June, 1898,
as follows: "Densely cespitose, tufts 2-6 mm. broad; cups stipitate, cyathiform,
one-fourth to one-half a line broad, externally clothed with an appressed villosity,
grayish ochraceous or subcervine, whitish within, the margin incurved; spores
oblong- or cylindrical. 10-12. .5 microns on bark of dead plum tree, February.

Stereum candidum Schw. (Hicks.)

Stereum complicatum Fr. On dead timber.

Stereum curtisii Berk. On stumps and logs.

Stereum frustulosum Fr. Common on rotting logs of oak.

Stereum hirsutum Fr. Common on dead timber.

Stereum ochraceoflavum Schw. On decaying timber. Mis. Dec. 1896, Dr. Beal.

Stereum purpureum Pers. Common on dead timber.

Stereum sericeum Schw. (Hicks.)

Stereum spadiceum Pers. Lewiston, Beardslee.

Stereum subpileatum B. & C. Chandlers, on oak log, July, 1897.

Stereum striatum Fr. Very common on trunks and branches of carpinus.

Stereum versicolor Schwartz. Plentiful on decaying stumps and logs.

Stereum versiforme Pk.

Thelephora anthocephala Fr. Woods. M. A. C, June, 1901. Found once.

Thelephora laciniata Pers. Common on naked soil.

Thelephora michenera B. & C. (Hicks 82.)

Thelephora pedicillata Schw. (Hicks.)

Thelephora Schweinitzii Pk. Common on ground in woods.

Thelephora terrestris Ehrh. (Hicks 72.)
Family Clavariese.

Clavaria albida Pk. Woods. Greenville. Sept., Barlow.

Clavaria aurea Schaeff. Woods. Not common. Summer.

Clavaria cinerea Bull. Woods. Not common.

Clavaria cristata Holwsk. Woods. Not plentiful. Summer.

Clavaria densissima Pk. n. sp. Named from a specimen collected by Barlow at
'Greenville, Oct., 1901. Bui. Torr. Bot. Club, Feb., 1903, p. 98.

Clavaria fusiformis Sow. In cedar swamps. Rare. Lewiston, Beardslee.

Clavaria inequalis Mill. var. (Hicks.)

Clavaria leucotephra B. & C. Woods. Common. Summer.

Clavaria muscoides Linn. In wet places, yellow, irregularly branched. Lewis-
ton, Beardslee.

Clavaria pinophila Pk. Woods. Plentiful. Summer and autumn.

Clavaria pistillaris. Once found at Port Huron. October.

Clavaria pyxidata Pers. Decaying logs. Not rare. Summer.
Family Tremellineae. *

Calocera cornea Fr. On wood. Summer and autumn.

Dacryomyces fragiformis (Pers.) Nees. Decaying limbs and sticks. Common.

Ditiola radicata Fr. (Hicks 319.)

Exidia albida Brefeld. Decaying wood. Common.

Exidia glandulosa Fr. Decaying wood. Common.

Exidia recisa Fr.? (Hicks 21.)

Guepinia spathularia Fr. Decaying wood. Not rare.

Nsematelia nucleata Fr. (Hicks.)

Tremella intumescens Sm. Common on decaying limbs.

Tremella mesenterica Retz. Not uncommon on decaying wood.
Order Gasteromyceteaj.

Bovista pila B. & C. Fields and pastures. Common. Summer and autumn.

Bovista plumbea Pers. Lawns and pastures. Abundant. Summer and autumn.

Catastoma circumscissa (B. & C.) Morgan. Sandy pastures. Not rare. Summer.

Catastoma subterranea. Sandy pastures. Not common. Summer.

Cyathus vernicosus D. C. On soil and decaying vegetable matter. Very com-
mon. Summer.

Geaster hygrometricus Pers. Common.

Geaster minimus Schw. Open grassy places. Common. Spring.

124 MICHIGAN ACADEMY OP SCIENCE.

Geaster saccatus Fr. Ground in woods. Common.

Geaster triplex Jungh. Low woods. Abundant.

Geaster umbilicatus Fr. Campus, M. A. C Found once.

Lycoperdon atropurpureum Vitt.

Lycoperdon ca?latum Bull. Common in fields. Summer.

Lycoperdon constellatum Fr.

Lycoperdon elongatum Berk. Common. Clearings

Lycoperdon gemmatum Batsch. Very common about decaying wood.

Lycoperdon Bovista L. (Lycoperdon giganteum Batsch.), etc. Not uncommon
in fields. Summer.

Lycoperdon glabellum Pk. Woods. M. A. C. Common.

Lycoperdon pedicillatum Pk. Woods, M. A. C. Rare.

Lycoperdon pyriforme Fr. Plentiful on decayed wood in woods.

Var. tessellatum Pers. Oct., 1898. M. A. C.

Lycoperdon Wrightii B. & C. Var, Separans Pk. Very common in fields. Sum-
mer.
Mycenastrum spinulosum Pk. Common on campus, M. A. C. Summer.

Phallus impudicus L. Common, shady places. Summer.

Phallus Ravenelii B. & C. Not uncommon near stumps. Summer.

Scleroderma flavida Ell. Greenville. Common in sandy soil. Summer and au-
tumn.

Scleroderma verrucosum Vaill. In woods. Common.

Scleroderma vulgare Fr. Common in woods and shaded ground.

Secotium Warnei Pk. Common in fields. Summer and autumn.

Tylostoma fibrillosum White. Common in sandy soil. Summer and autumn.

Tylostoma mammosum Fr. In sandy soil. Not common.
Ascomycetes.

Chlorosplenium seruginosum De Not. Decaying wood, frequent. Spring to au-
tumn.

Chlorosplenium versiforme Fr. On mossy, decayed wood. Not common. Spring
to autumn.

Cordyceps clavulata Schw. (Hicks 603.)

Cordyceps stylophora (Hicks 325.)

Geopyxis Hicksii Pk. n. sp. (Hicks.)

Geopyxis verrucosa E. & E. (Hicks 760.)

Helvella crispa Fr. Grassy places partly shaded. Not common. Autumn.

Helvella elastica Bull. Low woods. Not plentiful. Summer.

Helvella sulcata Afzel. Woods. Not plentiful. Summer.

Leptoglossum luteum (Pk.) Sacc. Greenville, July, 1900.

Mollisia cinerea Batsch. (Hicks.)

Morchella angusticeps Pk. Very plentiful in low woods. Spring.

Morchella bispora Sorok. Quite common in moist woods. Spring. M. A. C. Var.
truncata Pk. Named from material collected by Hicks at M. A. C.

Morchella deliciosa Fr. Margins of woods. Rare. Spring.

Morchella hybrida Pers. (Moi-chella semilibera Dec.) Common in woods. Spring.

Morchella punctipes Pk. n. sp. Named from specimens collected in woods near
M. A. C. Spring. 1901. Bui. Torr. Bot. Club Feb., 1903, p. 99.

Peziza badia Pers. Woods. M. A. C. May, 1901.

Peziza craterium Schw. Very common on sticks in woods. Spring.

Peziza repanda Wahlenb.?

Pyrenopeziza subatra C. & P. (Hicks 615.)

Spathularia clavata Sacc. Lewiston, Beardslee.

Verpa digitaliformis Pers. In woods. Not common. Spring.

DANIELS ON FLORA OF MANISTEE, MICHIGAN. 125

THE FLORA OF THE VICINITY OF MANISTEE, MICJ3.

FRANCIS POTTER ]QANIELS, A. M,
INTRODUCTION.

An attempt is liere made to set forth the results of a study of the flora
of Manistee, Mich., and vicinity, made during' the year 1900. An earnest
effort was made to discover and study all species growing within a radius
of five or six miles from Manistee, but doubtless the flora given here is far
from complete. The season was unusually wet and large portions of the
swamps and marshes were inaccessible much of the year. The list of
aquatics is doubtless too small. Besides some common species may not
have been noticed, since the interest naturally centered upon new and
unusual forms. But I succeeded in noting some 750 species, most of which
grow in the vicinity of Manistee, although I have included a few found in
the neighboring counties of Lake and Mason. The ecology of this flora is
of unusual interest. On the dunes the littoral flora of the Great Lakes
mingles with the flora proper of the interior of the State. Moreover the
denuding of the region of its pines has occasioned many changes in the
conditions of plant growth. The problem of reforesting these denuded
districts will find its solution only after a careful study of the present
conditions of plant growth. But clearly one year's observation is insuffi-
cient to note all the many gradual changes that are taking place. Only a
careful study year after year of the same region can enable the botanist
to determine the full import of what he sees. But a faithful picture of
present conditions is not without its value. It may add its increment to
what already is known.

Manistee is situated on the shore of Lake Michigan at the mouth of
Manistee river. It is about eighteen miles north of the 44th parallel and
about the same distance west of the 86th meridian. The main part of the
city lies south of the river, which expands into a long narrow lake skirting
the eastern side of the city. Two rivers flow into this lake, the Little
Manistee and the Big Manistee or Manistee river proper. Manistee lake
lies northwest and southeast. The town of East Lake lies on its east
shore, and near its northeast extremity is Filer City. The lake at most
times is jammed with logs, and its north end especially has many stagnant
offshoots, separated by marshy flats.

The shore of Lake Michigan stretches southwest by northeast. In front
of the city the shore is sandy and large dunes have formed. Southwest
of the city the sands and dunes suddenly cease, and the steep banks are of
clay for an indefinite distance. Northwestward the sands and dunes con-
tinue for a mile or so when the clay formation begins again until Bar
Lake is reached some two miles beyond.

The region south of Manistee consists of light sandy soil, much of the
district consisting of pine barrens, but westward toward the lake the soil is
heavier and there are a few good farms. Several small lakes lie in the
heart of this desolate region, the largest being Canfield's lake. North of
the city the soil is of varied character. The dunes gradually become better

126 MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

swarded and wooded and at their base lies Oak Grove cemetery, back of
which is a small timber-land forest which becomes birch woods at the
point where the dunes cease. North of this point there are some fine
farms. About midway between Oak Grove cemetery and Bar Lake is
Orchard Beach park. Here the shore of Lake Michigan is wet and spongy
and covered with a beautiful growth of arbor vit.T>.

Bar Lake lies close to the beach of Lake Michigan. At high water it
flows into Lake Michigan, but a narrow sand bar ordinarily keeps the two
lakes apart. The north shore of Bar Lake is sandy, and the pine and oak
barrens reappear there, but the south shore is wet and low and a large
marsh meadow stretches to the forest. This begins as alluvial bottom
land, continues as beech and maple timber lands, and finally becomes oak
openings (originally pine).

Northeast of Manistee lie the bluffs of Manistee river covered with a
forest of oak and pine. North of East lake are large swampy tracts, and
eastward is more oak and pine forest, broken by occasional bogs.

The weather of Manistee during 1900 was, I am told, hardly typical.
April was warm and towards its close the trailing arbutus was in blos-
som, but the months of May and June were cold, the spring consequently
was long and vegetation backward. July also was cold. August was
warm, and the autumn delightful. There was scarce any frost till the
fore part of November, and the snow of winter fell upon leaves still green
and asters in full bloom. The rainfall was excessive during the whole
season. The grass at no time was parched, and the vegetation conse-
quently was at its best.

ECOLOGY.

The flora of the regions about Manistee falls into five principal divi-
sions: First, The shore and dune vegetation of J^ake Michigan. Second,
The coniferous woods of northern Michigan, now being rapidly trans-
formed into oak lands, thus coalescing with any original oak openings
there may have been. Third, The alluvial bottoms and beech and maple
timber lands. Fourth, The swamp, marsh and aquatic flora. Fifth, Weeds
and plants owing their presence to the agency of man. A few parasites
and saprophytes remain to be added.

But these*^ divisions need to be subdivided according as xerophytic,
mesophytic, or hydrophytic features predominate. The following table
exhibits the formations as they may be separated according to the relative
lack or abundance of water, the nature of the soil, etc.

I. Xerophytes.

A. Beach of Lake Michigan (Littorales).

B. Shifting sands of dunes, etc. (Arenarise).

C. Sandy banks of Lake Michigan (Riparise).

D. Swarded and wooded dunes (Sylvales et Pratenses).

E. Dry sandy margins of lakes (Marginales).

F. Pine and oak barrens (Siccatae et Steriles).

II. Mesophytes. ,

A. Clay banks of Lake Michigan (Riparise).

B. Pine and oak forests (Sylvales).

C. Timber lands (Sylvales).

D. Birch woods (Sylvales).

E. Alluvial bottoms (Alluviales).

DANIELS ON FLORA OF MANISTEE, MICBIGAN. 127

III. Hydrophytes.

A. Spi-iugy b;inks of Lake Michigan i Kipaiia* et Fontin^jles).

B. Sphagnous bogs (Sphagnicoljp).

C. Along rills in ravines, s])rings, etc. (Kivales et Fontinales).

D. Swales and shaded bogs, etc. ( PahiKtrcs et I'alndosu') .

E. Swamps and o])en l)Ogs ( Pahislrcs ct Pabidosa').

F. Marsh meadows (Pratenses).

G. Margins of lakes, ponds, etc. (Marginalcs, Limosa^ et Am-

phibiaO.
H. Aquatic in lakes, ponds, and streams ( Atpiatiles).

IV. I'arasites and Saprophytes.

V. Anthropophytes.

A. Forage })lants (Praticola').

B. Weeds (Testes).

C. Escapes, etc. (AJiense).

The xerophytlc vegetation is of three types, the shore and dune vege-
tation of Lake Michioan, that of the sandy shores of the inland lakes,
etc., and that of the pine and oak barrens and sterile hills. The shore
and dune formation has four strata. 1. The beach flora, consisting of
beach willows, sage brush, thistles, a few rushes, grasses and other plants.
2. The flora of shifting sands, with bugseed, beach grasses, bearberry, puc-
coons, etc., as representative plants. 3. The bank flora of the sands of two
great types, the dogwood association, consisting of several species of dog-
wood, Indian currant, willow, Shepherdia, cherry, etc., and the lianas
formed of poison ivy, grape, honeysuckle, Virginia creeper, bittersweet.
and the beach pea. The shrubless and vineless portions have, in the main,
the flora of the beach and shifting sands. 4. The flora of the swarded ajid
wooded dunes. This is the most complex of all the plant formations.
Perhaps its only distinctive plant is the juniper. Beach plants, dune
plants, the flora of the pine lands, oak lands, timber lands, even at the
few springs the paludose and limose vegetation, all strive not so much
for mastery as for mere existence. Tall trees have but their tops stick-
ing out. The pines on the summits of the dunes and banks have their
branches all on the east side showing how heav}' the winds are. The
isolated birches are stung by insects and are misshapen and diseased.
Horsetails and beach grasses send out their cord-like roots for yards
and strive to master the shifting sands. \Vhere mastery is assured the
dwarf blueberry takes possession and in the sheltered ravines, the beauti-
ful trailing arbutus, the Linnaea, Polygala and other floral treasures
grow. These sands are moister than one thinks. However dry the sur-
face may appear, a few inches underneath the sand is moist, hence where
the sands are under control a surprisingly rich vegetation is found.

The flora of the sandy margins of inland lakes has scarcely anything in
common with that of Lake Michigan. Bar lake, owing to its proximity to
Lake Michigan, is a partial exception. Potentilla Anserina, L. found only
on its south shore, is properly a member of the littoral flora of the Great
Lakes. This littoral flora is similar to that of the Atlantic. Ammophila,
Cakile, the beach pea, Triglochin, Potentilla Anserlna, L., Junciis BaltUus
littoralis, Eng., jointweed-leaved spurge, belong to both. Andropo<jon
maritimus, Chapm. is replaced by the very similar A. scoparius multi-

128 MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

ramea. Hack. The iutioduced Russian thistle is fast taking the place of
the Atlantic sea kale.

The flora of the pine and oak barrens is properly distinct from the
littoral flora mentioned. The scrub pine is very characteristic of it. The
sweet fern is omnipresent. Bearberry is frequent, while acres in the tree-
less regions are whitened with cudweeds and everlastings. The various
oaks try to grow, but fires have consumed the little original humus, and
often only poplars, willows, choke cherries, and sweet fern exist to warn
the settler of a burnt out soil. These regions are truly desolate.

The mesophytic vegetation is of three chief sorts. 1. The clay banks of
Lake Michigan. The Philadelphia lily, painted cup, ivory sedge {Carex
eburnea, Boott.), balsam poplar, and a few golden rods and anemones
characterize it, though doubtless it belongs properly to the birch woods
flora. But the beach plants creep up the clay as the beach sands blow
along it, and give it a littoral aspect. 2. The flora of the pine and oak
forests. The better pine lands belong here. Originally the white pine.
Norway pine, and the hemlock were the chief trees, with some admixture of
birch and oak, but now the oak has supplanted quite completely the orig-
inal flora. It is the old millennial conflict of the gymnosperm and the angio-
sperm, in which the angiosperm is eternally the victor. Not only is the
weakness of its naked ovary the cause of the pine's rout, the reckless cut-
ting of the pine forests has given to the oak its opportunity to exterminate
its foe. But the pine is no mean antagonist. Left to itself it will hold its
own well. It, however, needs ages of preparation. Two things are
requisite to its growth besides proper climate and soil. 1. It needs air
and light. 2. Trees need to grow close together to keep out and shade out
the angiosperm. For the shade of a conifer is perpetual, and only a few
pale plants flourish beneath it. A deciduous forest allows the spring vege-
tation to blossom and fruit unhindered by excessive shade, Avhile the
evergreens never allow such a growth. The two conditions of the pine's
growth are paradoxical, and make it hard for a new pine to start. The
crest of a pine forest resembles a vast series of cone-shaped roofs. This
gives light to the top of the tree, and the terminal bud is relatively more
important to a conifer than it is to an oak. The branches below where the
various roofs join become feeble at first, then die away. If one tree is
too close to another, its inner branches perish, leaving only its top and
outer branches. If a tree dies, or the snow breaks a top so as to admit the
light to the ground, the proper conditions for a new pine exists, and the
little one is protected by the close society of the old, and still has room to
seek the sky. But the young grow only as they are needed, hence when
a forest is felled, but a few young plants are left, and the oak has a clear
field. Wherever, as on a hillside, a tree is left and a nucleus is formed,'
the pine will even thrust out the oak. It grows faster, it is on a soil
native- to it, consequently it shades out the intruder. It marshals its
young around it and together they form the nucleus of a forest. Un-
fortunately the places where the pine thus persists are rare. The frequent
fires harm the pine with its resinous wood more than it does the young
oak with its stout taproot. Tlie homlock is all but exterminated. Only
in two or three places around Manistee does it attempt to gain its lost
ground, then it stands in comi>act clusters, forming almost impenetrable
thickets with a shade darker than any I have seen elsewhere. Lumbermen
say that the hemlock will not stand isolation, that it dies as soon as it is
left alone. Certain it is that its chance of existence is more precarious

DANIEf.S ON FLORA OF MANISTEE, MICHIGAN. 129

than that of the pine in spite of the fact that it fares less severely under
the lumberman's ax. But the oak, I take it, is a valuable substitute for
the conifers. The prevailing opinion of lumbermen is that the oak will
never make timber trees. I think this is a mistake. On good soil it makes
as good a growth as it does in central Michigan on its own natural
openings. It is a slow grower and it is unfair to call it contemptously
scrub oak. Such it is, doubtless, on the barrens, and so is the pine a
scrub pine there. In my opinion the problem of refoi-estry in good pine
land will be solved by protecting the incoming oak from fire, by properly
thinning it, and allowing it time to overcome the resin in the soil by the
yearly mulching of its own leaves. The flora of the oak openings follows
the oak, the proper pine flora is persisting as best it may; but fires and
pasturings allow only the hardiest herbs to survive.

The third mesophytic flora is that of the bottoms, limber lands, etc. As
the pine grows on sand, so the maple and beech choose a rich black soil.
Around Manistee there is but the alluvial bottoms near Bar Lake. Of
timber land there is the Bar- Lake forest, and a few acres back of Oak
Grove cemetery. Of typical birch forest there are but a few groves re-
maining. The extreme back end of the cemetery woods is of birch forma-
tion, and the best farm lands around Manistee appear to have been of
birch soil. The canoe birch, however, is ubiquitous. On the summit of a
dune, on a bleak shore, in pine barrens, or in deep swamps, it is equally
at home. This third flora is rich in species, and were there more of it
around Manistee, it would have first rank in importance.

The hydrophytic vegetation is hard to classify', the springy banks of
Lake Michigan are rich in equiseta ; the northern green orchis, and the
golden sedge {Carex aurea, Nutt.) abound in the shade of the arbor vitae.
Liverworts are plentiful here. There are few sphagnous bogs, but some
of the rarest floral treasures are found therein. The pale laurel, the white
cotton grass, the mountain holly, cranberry, accompany the characteristic
Cassandra. Along rills in ravines and around springs is found the most
delicate of all Ihe plant formations here. The naked bishop's cap, the
Goodyeras, the yellow Mimulus, blue speedwell, the toothwort, several
slender sedges and grasses, and in the fall the striking cardinal flower,
make these places a delight to the botanist, to say nothing of the delicate
mosses, liverworts and ferns. The swales and bogs in the timber lands
have their peculiar sedges, and while the vegetation is rank, it is not as
coarse as that of the more open swamps and bogs. The tressed sedge
{Carex crinita, Lam.) is not so stiff and coarse as the cat tails and cotton
grasses of the open bog. The typical swamp has a watery nucleus filled
with various aquatics. Then comes a limose or amphibious formation,
often junceous, typhaceous or scirpoideous. Then follows a zone of
cotton grasses and stiff sedges, then perhaps a belt of grasses or a girdle
of tall composites, principally golden rod, aster, boneset, and stick-tights.
Or the swamp may have a girdle of shrubs, buttonbush, chokeberry,
winterberry, tall blueberry, dogwood, rose, willow, red raspberry. A
fern brake may follow, mostly Osmundas. The marsh meadows around
Bar Lake are typical of the class. Yellow sedge {Carex ffava. L.), Cala-
magrostls Canadensis Beau., sundews, adder's tongues (Ophioglossum),
pitcher plants, rushes, Cladium, purple-fringed orchis, ferns, etc., abound.
The margins of ponds and lakes have their limose species, creeping in the
mud, their amphibious bullrushes, sweet flags, blue flags, etc., and the
ponds and lakes themselves are full of duckweeds, pondweeds, and often
17

130 MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

water lilies. Lake Michigau itself appears to have a few species. At
least Elodea and Vallisneria can be detected in places sheltered by rocks,
and I found at least one Potamogeton cagt up by the waves.

Such is a brief description of the ecology of the region. What impresses
me most is the incessant struggle going on continually. There is the fight
for existence on the dunes; there is the conflict betw^een the gymno.^perm
and the angiospenn in the vast wilderness left by the lumberman; there
is the hand of man transforming the fertile timber lands into productive
fields, and even the swamp vegetation succumbs to the ditch, the wooded
bog becomes an open swamp as the trees are felled, and its delicate species
yield to the coarse intruders. Even the placid aquatics have their
troubles. Logs by the thousands come down the streams and lakes and
drag the plants from their roots.

In the flora apjwnded I have tried to put each species in the formation
most proper to it, and to call attention, by a brief reference, to other
formations in which it is of common occurrence. I claim no infallibility
of judgment ; it is suflicient if I enable anyone to recall the flora of like
regions as they read. Some plants are ubiquitous, others a stern fate has
pushed into an improper sphere. I have tried to record as faithfully as
possible what I found, yet at best many species are hard to classify. The
green leaf-bearing parasites, such as the Gerardias, Comandra, etc., I have
put in their proper plant formation, and in the separate class of parasites,
etc., I have put only the forms without chlorophyl.

For the sake of completeness I have put in the lists a few plants gathered
at Filer's camp, Lake county, also a few at Scottville. The plants, the
identification of which is doubtful, are mentioned in the notes.

The following species, found at Manistee, are not included in the
Michigan flora prepared by Profs. Beal and Wheeler in 1892, nor in Prof.
Wheeler's supplementary list published in the report of the Michigan
Board of Agriculture, 1898, and hence presumably for the first time have
been found in the State.

1. — Native Plants.
Ambrosia psilostachya, DC.
Heliantlius mollis, Lam.
Juniperus communis alpina, Gaud.
Juncus tenuis congestus, Engelm.
Potamogeton Illinoensis, Morong.
Eleocharis compressa, Sull.
Carex conjuncta, Boott.

Panicum nitidum pilosum, In Harvard Herb
Andropogon scoparius multiramea, Hack.
Botrychium ternatum lunarioides, Eaton.

2. — Exotics.
Fumaria officinalis, L.
Dianthus barbatus, L.
Gypsophila muralis, L.
Foeniculum officinale, All.
Bellis perennis, L.
Chrysanthemum Parthenium, Pers.
Tanacetum Balsamita, L..
Populus dilatata, L.
Lilium tigrinum, Ker.
Bromus brizaeformis, F. & M.

A few in the above lists are doubtful, and are given in the hope that attention
may be attracted to them and a more satisfactory determination given.

DANIELS ON FLORA OF MANISTEE, MICHIGAN. 131

The following ascribed only to the Upper Peninsula I found at Manistee:

Lepldium intermedium, Gray.
Cycloloma platyphyllum, Moquln.
Scripus sylvaticus digynus, Boeckl.
Carex echlnata cephalantha, Bailey.
Carex tribuloides reducta, Bailey.
Ophioglossum vulgatum, L.

The species mentioned below appear not to have been found before in the
vicinity of Manistee:

Amphicarpa^a Pitcheri, T. & G.

Myriophyllum heterophyllum, Michx.

Berula angustifolia, Koch.

Symphorlcarpos racemosus pauciflorus, Rob.

Coreopsis discoidea, T. & G.

Kalmia glauca, Ait.

Verbena bracteosa, Michx.

Pycnanthemura linifolium, Pursh.

Cyperus Schweinitzii, Torr.

Fimbristylis antumnalis, R. & S.

Carex hystricina Dudleyi, Bailey.

C. umbellata, Schk.

C. Muhlenbergii, Schk.

C. trisperma, Dewey.

Panicum pubescens. Lam.

Equisetum robustum, A. Br.

Lycopodium complanatum chamsecyparissus. Eat.

Two or three species included in the appended flora have been admitted on the
authority of others who have gathered them at Manistee; all the others have
passed directly under my observation, and almost all of the rare and peculiar
species are represented by plants in my herbarium.

LIST OF THE FLORA OF THE VICINITY OF MANISTEE, MICH., 1900,

ECOLOGICALLY ARRANGED.

I. — Xerophytes. .

A. — Beach of Lake Michigan.

1. Cakile Americana, Nutt. July-Oct.

2. Xanthium Canadense echinatum, Gray. Sept.

3. Artemisia Canadensis, Michx. Common also on dunes.

4. Cnicus Pitcheri, Torr. July-Sept. Also on dunes.

5. Salix glaucophylla, Bebb. Also on dunes.

6. S. glaucophylla angustifolia, Bebb.

7. S. glaucophylla brevifolia, Bebb. Also on dunes.

8. S. adenophylla, Hook. Rare.

9. Juncus Balticus littoralis, Engelm. Wet sands.

10. Eleocharis pauciflora. Link. Rare; wet sands.

11. Agropyron dasystachyum, Vasey. Also dunes.

12. Blymus Canadensis glaucifolius, Gray, Also dunes.

B. — Shifting sands of dunes, etc.

13. Arabis lyrata, L. Also all barren places.

14. Hudsonia tomentosa, Nutt. Summit of dunes.

15. Arenarla serpyllifolia, L. All sands.

16. Mollugo verticillata, L. Also waste places.

17. Helianthus mollis. Lam. One patch near railroad.

18. Campanula rotundifolia arctica, Lange.

19. Arctostaphylos Uva-ursi. Spreng. Also pine barrens.

20. Lithospermum hirtum, Lehm, Also sandy woods.

21. L. canescens, Lehm. Also sandy woods and barrens.

132 MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

22. Linaria Canadensis, Dumont. Tops of dunes.

23. Corispermum hyssopifolium, L. Aug.-Sept.

24. Polygonella articulata, Meisn. Sept.

25. Euphorbia polygonifolia. L. All sandy wastes.

26. Cyperus Schweinitzii, Torr. Sandy levels.

27. Carex umbellata, Schkuhr. Tops of dunes.

28. Cenchrus tribuloides, L. A weed in all sands.

29. Andropogon scoparius multiramea, Hack.

30. Calamagrostis longifolia, Hook.

31. Ammophila arundinacea. Host. Tops of dunes.

32. Hordeum jubatum, L. All sandy places.

33. Selaginella rupestris, Spring. Tops of dunes.

C. — Sandy banks of Lake Michigan.

34. Ceanothus ovatus, Desf. Rare.

35. Vitis riparia, Michx. Common in dry soils.

36. Ampelopsis quinquefolia, Michx. All soils.

37. Rhus Toxicodendron, L. All soils.

38. Lathyrus maritimus. Big. Also on the beach.

39. Prunus pumila, L. Very rare.

40. Rubus strigosus, Michx. Also low grounds.

41. Cornus circinata, L'Her.

42. C. sericea. L. Also very frequent in swamps.

43. C. asperifolia, Michx. Also on dunes.

44. C. Baileyi, C. & E. Also on dunes.

45. C. stolon if era, Michx. Also on dunes.

46. Symphoricirpos racemosus, Michx. Foot of bank.

47. S. racemosus pauciflorus, Robbins.

48. Lonicera glauca. Hill. Also on dunes, etc.

49. Solidago humilis, Pursh. Also clay banks.

50. S. humilis Gillmani, Gray. Also clay banks.

51. Shepherdia Cauadensis, Nutt. Also clay banks.

D. — Swarded and wooded dunes.

52. Aauilegia C'^nadensis. L. Also sandy woods.

53. Helianthemum Canadense, Michx. Also pine barrens.

54. Geranium Carolinianum, L. One plant on dunes.'

55. Celastrus scandens. T.. Also on banks.

56. Polygala paucifolia, Wilkl. Also pine woods.

57. Prunus Pennsylvanica, I,, f. Also timber lands.

58. P. Virginiana, I... Common in all thickets.

59. Amelanchier Canadensis, T. & G.

60. Hamamelis Virginiana. I^. Also al! soils.

61. Aralia racemosa, L.

62. Viburnum acerifolium, L. Also oak woods.

63. V. pubescens, Pursh. Also oak thickets.

64. I innsa bor^^lis, L. Ravines amons: dunes, etc.

65. Diervilla trifida, Moench. All sandy soils.

66. Solidage nemoralis. Ait. Also pine barrens.

67. Hieracium Canadense. Michx.

68. H. scabrum, Michx.

69. Campanula rotundifolia. L. All dry places.

70. Gaylussacia resinosa, T. & G. All barrens.

71. Gerardia pedicularia, L. Also sandy woods.

72. Verbena bracteosa. Michx. Sands nenr Manistee R.

73. Calamintha Clinopodium, Benth. All barrens.

74. Jliniperus communis, L. Tops of dunes.

75. Deschampsia flexuosa, Trin. Also barrens.

76. Kceleria cristata, Pers. Also dry barrens.

77. Festuca tenella. Willd.

78. F. ovina, Ij. Also dry woods.

79. F. ovina rubra. Gray. Also dry woods.

DANIELS ON FLORA OF MANISTEE, MICHIGAN. 133

E. — Dry sandy margins of lakes.

' 80. Hypericum Kalmianum, L. Canfield and Bar lakes.

81. Potentilla Anserina, L. Also moist sands. Bar lake.

82. Rosa blanda. Ait, Also shores of Lake Michigan.

83. Lobelia spicata, I^m. North shore of Bar lake.

84. Populus monillfera, Ait. East shore of Canfield lake.
88. Juniperus communis alpina, Gaud. Near Bar lake.

F. — Pine and oak barrens.

86. Arabia laevigata, Poir.

87. Lechea minor, L. Summits of sterile hills.

88. Ceanothus Americanus, L. Also dunes.

89. Rhus typhina. I^. Dry banks, etc.

90. R. glabra, L. Rare.

91. R. copallina, L. Very common.

92. Lupinus perennis, L. Sandy open woods.

93. Fragaria Virginiana, Mill. Common.

94. Pimpinella integerrima, B. & H. Hillsides,

95. Galium pilosum, Alt.

96. G. circffizans, Michx.

97. Antennaria campestris, Rydbg. Knolls, etc.

98. A. Farwellii, Greene.

99. A, neglecta, Greene.

100. A. Parlinii ambigens, Fernald.

101. Gnaphalium polycephalum, Michx. Common.

102. G. decurrens, Ives.

103. Senecio aureus Balsamit*, T. & G.

104. Hieracium venosum, L.

105. Vaccinium Pennsylvanicum, Lam.

106. Epigaea repens, L. Also on wooded dunes.

107. Gaulthei'ia procumbens, L. Also dunes.

108. Lysimachia quadrifolia, L.

109. Asclepias tuberosa, L. Sandy opeq places.

110. Pedicularis Canadensis, L.

111. Myrica asplenifolia, Endl. Also dunes.

112. Quercus coccinea, Wang. All oak lands.

113. Q. coccinea tinctoria. Gray. All oak lands.

114. Salix rostrata, Richardson. Also all soils.

115. S. humilis, Marsh.

116. Populus tremuloides, Michx. Also swamps.

117. P. grandidentata, Michx. Moist soils also.

118. Pinus Banksiana, Lambert.

119. Cypripedium acaule. Ait. Rare.

120. Hypoxis erecta, L. Uncommon.

121. Tradescantia Virginica, L. Sandy, open places.

122. Cyperus filiculmis, Vahl. Sandy, open places.

123. Carex Muhlenbergii, Schkuhr. Hillsides.

124. C. cephalophora, Muhl. Especially dry hill's.

125. Panicum Xanthophysum, Gray.

126. P. nitidum, Michx., v. pilosum. In Harvard Herb.

127. P, pubescens. Lam.

128. P. depauperatum, Muhl. Very common.

129. P. dichotomum, L. All dry soils.

130. Andropogon furcatus, Muhl. Dry banks.

131. A. scoparius, Michx. Also dunes.

132. Oryzopsis Canadensis, Torr.

133. Agrostis scabra, Willd.

134. Danthonia spicata, Beauv.

135. Pteris aquilina, L. «

136. Lycopodium complanatum, L.

1.37. T.,, complanatum Chama?cyparissus, Gray.

134 MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

II. — Mesophytes.

A. — Clay banks of Lake Michigan.

138. Anemone Virginiana, L. Also oak openings.

139. A. cylindrica, Gray. Also oak openings.

140. Castilleia coccinea, Spreng.

141. Populus balsamifera, L.

142. Lilium Philadelphicum, L.

143. Carex eburnea, Boott. Also wet banks.

B. — Pine and oak forests.

144. Anemone nemorosa, L. Rare in timber lands.

145. Hepatica triloba, Chaix.

146. Thalictrum dioicum, L.

147. Corydalis glauca, Pursh. Filer's Camp, Lake Co.

148. Viola pedata, L. Prefers sandy soil.

149. V. palmata cucullata, Gray. Also timber lands.

150. V. sagittata, Ait. Open situations.

151. V. pubescens, Ait.

152. V. rostrata, Pursh.

153. Geranium maculatum, L.

154. Desmodlum nudiflorum, DC.

155. D. acuminatum, DC.

156. D. rotundifolium, DC.

157. D. paniculatum, DC. Thickets,

158. Prunus Americana, Marshall, Glades.

159. Rubus occidentalis, L. Open places.

160. R. vIUosus, Ait. Abundant in open woods.

161. R. Canadensis, L. Also common in fields.

162. Potentilla Canadensis, L. All dry situations.

163. Agriraonia Eupatoria. L. Open places.

164. Rosa humilis. Marsh.

165. Crataegus coccinea, L. Al.so banks of Lake Michigan.

166. C. Crus-galli, L. Copses.

167. Ribes Cynosbati, L. Open woods.

168. Sanicula Marylandica, L.

169. Cornus florida, L. Rare.

170. C. paniculata, L'Her. Thickets.

171. Sambucus Canadensis, L. Open places.

172. Triosteum perfoliatum, L. Rich woods,

173. Mitchella repefis, L. Common also in timber lands.

174. Solidago caesia, L. Also on w^ooded dunes.

175. S. juncea, Ait. Copses, etc.

176. S. serotina. Ait. Common in most soils.

177. S. Canadensis, L. Everywhere.

178. Aster corymbosus. Ait.

179. A. lajvis, L. Everywhere,

180. A, dumosus, L. Open places.

181. Rudbeckia hirta, L. Everywhere in wild ground

182. Helianthus divaricatus, L.

183. Cacalia atriplicifolia, L. Open woods, etc.

184. Erechtites hieracifolia, Raf. Burned woods.

185. Krigla Virginica, Willd. Rare in pine forests.

186. K. amplexicaulis, Nutt.

187. Lactuca Canadensis, L. Also in low places.

188. L. integrifolia, Bigel. Open places.

189. lobelia inflata, L.

190. Chimaphila umbellata, Nutt.

191. Pyrola secunda, L.

192. P. elliptica, Nutt.

193. Halenia deflexa, Griseb. Pine forests. '

194. Phlox pilosa, L,

195. Cynoglossum Virglnicum, L.

196. Gerardia flava, L.

DANIELS ON FLORA OF MANISTEE, MICHIGAN. 135

197. G. quercifolia, Pursh.

198. Melampyrum Amoricanum, Michx. Also barrens.

199. Monarda fistnlo.sa, L. Prefers open places.

200. Polygonum ciliuode, Michx. Filer's Camp, Lake Co.

201. Sassafras officinale, Nees. On dunes also.

202. Comandra umbellata, Nutt. Open places.

203. Euphorbia corollata, L. Also a weed in fields, etc.

204. Corylus Americana, Walt. Thickets.

205. Quercus alba, L. Rapidly superseding pines.

206. Q. rubra, L. Occasional in timber lands.

207. Pinus Strobus, L. Persists best on hills.

208. P. resinosa. Ait.

209. Tsuga Canadensis, Carr. Persists best in moist ravines.

210. Spiranthes gracilis, Big. Under pines: very rare.

211. Dioscorea villosa, L. Thickets.

212. Polygonatuni Intlorum, Ell. Thickets, etc.

213. P. giganteum. Diet. Also timber lands.

214. Sirailacina racemosa, Desf. Also timber lands

215. S. stellata, Desf. Common also on dunes.

216. Trillium grandiflorum, Salisb. Woods S. of Bar lake.

217. Carex Pennsylvanica, Lara. Sward of woods.

218. C. straminea, Willd. Thickets, etc.

219. Panicum latifolium. L.

220. Oryzopsis asperifolia. Michx. Rich woods.

221. Muhlenbergia sylvatica. T. & G.

222. Agrostis scabra, Willd. Fond of dry places.

223. Agropyron caninum, R. & S.

224. Asprella Hystrix, Willd.

225. Equisetum arvense, L. Everywhere in dry or moist soil.

C. — Timberlands.

226. Hepatica acutiloba, DC. Scottville.

227. Ranunculus abortivus, L. Common everywhere.

228. R. i-ecurvatus, Poir. In shade.

229. Acttea alba. Bibel. Seeks rich ravines.

230. Caulophyllum thalictroides, Michx.

231. Podophyllum peltatum, L. Also oak openings.

232. Sauguinaria Canadensis. L. Lake Co.. near Filer's Camp.

233. Dentaria laciniata, Muhl.

234. Viola Canadensis, L.

235. V. canina Muhlenbergii, Gray.

236. Claytonia Caroliniana, Michx. Filer's Camp, Lake Co.

237. Oxalis corniculata stricta, Sav. Also fields, etc.

238. Euonymus Americanus obovatus, T. & G.

239. Acer spicatum. Lam. Damp woods.

240. A. saccharinum, Wang.

241. Prunus serotina, Ehrh. Also in most other soils.

242. Mitella diphylla. L. Moist places.

243. Cryptotaenia Canadensis, DC.

244. Osmorrhiza longistylis, DC.

245. Aralia nudicaulis, L.

246. A. trifolia, D. & P.

247. Coruus Canadensis. L. All damp woods.

248. Uinicera cilia! a, Muhl Woods back of cemetery.

249. Phlox divaricata, L.

250. Echinospermum Virginicum, L.

251. Solanum nigrum, L. All shady places.

252. Scrophularia nodosa Marilandica, Gray.

253. Phryma Leptostachya, L.

2.54. Pycnanthemum linifolium, Pursh.

255. Brunella vulgaris, L. But common everywhere.

256. Asarum Canadense. L. Rich low soil.

257. Ulmus fulva, Michx. Occasionally on oak land.>^

258. Carya amara, Nutt. Onp tree east of Custer,

136 MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

259. Ostrya Virginica, Willd.

260. Carpinus Caroliniana, Walt.

261. Fagus ferruginea, Ail.

262. Allium tricoccuni. Ait. Filer's Camp, Lake Co.

263. Streptopus roseus, Michx. Woods back of cemetery.

264. Clintonia borealis, Raf. Rich ravines.

265. Uvularia grandiflora, Smith.

266. Medeola Virginiaua, 1^.

267. Carex debilis Rudgei, Bailey.

268. C. gracillima, Schwein.

269. C. grisea, Wahl.

270. C. laxiflora variaus, Bailey.

271. C. laxiflora striatula. Carey.

272. C. laxiflora palulifolia. Carey. Open places.

273. C. digitalis, Willd.

274. C. plantaginea, Lam. Filer's Camp, Lake Co,

275. C. communis, Bailey. Supplants C. Pennsylvanica, Lam. in timber lands.

276. C. communis Wlieeleri, Bailey.

277. Brachyelytrum aristatum, Beauv.

278. Cinna arundinacea, T^.

279. Poa debilis, Torr.

280. P. alsodes, Gray. Rich low soil.

281. Festuca nutans. Willd.

282. Bromus ciliatus. L. All moist woods.

283. B. ciliatus purgans. Gray. Moist woods

284. Adiantum pedatum, L.

285. Asplenium Filix-foemina, Bernh.

286. Aspidium acrostichoides, Swartz.

287. Botrychium Virginianum, Swartz.

288. Lycopodium lucidulum, Michx.

289. L. obscurum. L. Scottville.

D. — Birch woods.

290. Solidago latifolia, L.

291. Aster macrophyllus, L.

292. Betula lenta, L. Also swales iu limberlands.

293. B. lutea, Michx. f. Also damp ravines.

294. B. papyrifera, Marshall. All places, all soils.

295. Erythronium Amerieanum, Ker.

B. — Alluvial bottoms.

296. Clematis Virginiaua. L.

297. Menispermum Canadense, L. . Scottville.

298. Hypericum macularnni, Walt.

299. H. mutilum, L.

.300. Tilia Americana. L. Also timberlauds.

301. Geranium Robertianum. I.,. Pere Marquette flats, Scotville.

302. Impatiens fulva, Nuti. All wet places.

303. Xanthoxyllum Amerieanum. Mill. Scottvillo.

304. Rhus venenata, D. C. Pere Marquette flats. Scottville.

305. Amphicarpa^a Pitcheri, T. & G. Vines covered with pods.

306. Rubus triflorus, Richardson. Near wet places.

307. Geum macrophyllum, Willd.

308. Potentilla Norvegica. Tv. Open places.

309. Pyrus Americana. \^(\ Rare.

310. Circaea T-utetiana. i-. All damp, shady places.

311. Cornus alternifolia, L. f. Moist banks.

312. Sambucus racemosa. I^.

313. Solidago patula, Muhl. Scottville.

314. Ambrosia trifida, L. Also weed in streets.

315. Prenanthes alba, L. All rich moist woods.

316. Campanula Americana, L. Also timberlands.

317. Pvrola rotuudifolia. L. .\11 wet woods.

DANIELS ON FLORA OF MANISTEE, MICHIGAN. 137

318. Trientalis Americana. Pursh. Common in wet places.

319. Fraxinus Americana, L.

320. F. pubescens, Lam. Pere Marquette flats, Scottville.

321. Hydrophyllum Virgiuicura, L.

322. H. appendiculatum, Michx.

323. Solanum Dulcamara, L. Also waste places.

324. Chenopodium oapitatum, Wats. Rare, fields, Scottville.

325. Polygonum V'irginianum, Ia Also timberlands.

326. LIndera Benzoin. Blumc.

327. Ulmus Americana, L. Also swamps and timberlands.

328. U. racemosa, Thomas.

329. Pilea pumila. Gray.

330. Platanus Occident alls, J.. Scottville.

331. Taxus Canadensis, WiUd. Also swamps.

332. Habon'aria psychodt-s. Gray. Also open low grounds.

333. Smilax hispida, Muhl. Also swamps and timberlands.

334. Maianthemum Canadense, Desf. All soils.

335. Carex polytrichoides, Muhl. Also swales.

336. C. Deweyana, Schwein. Also timberlands.

337. Equisetum scirpoides, Michx. Scottville.

338. Phegopteris Dryopteris, Fee. Woods S. of Bar lake.

339. Aspidium spinulosum intermedium, DC. Eaton.

340. A. cristatum, Swartz.

341. A. marginale, Swartz. Pere Marquette Flats, Scottville.

342. Cystopteris bulbifera, Bernh.

343. Onoclea sensibilis. l<.

III. — Hydrophytes.

A. — Springy banks of Lake Michigan.

344. Solidago lanceolata, L. Common in all open places.

345. Alnus incana, Willd. Also bogs.

346. Thuya occidentalis, L. Also coniferous bogs.

347. Habenaria hyperborea, R. Br. Abtindant at Orchard Beach.

348. Carex aurea, Nutt. Orchard Beach.

349. Equisetum hyemale, L. All wet banks, etc.

350. E. robustum. Braun. U^ncommon.

351. Preissia commutata. Nees.

B. — Sphagnous bogs.

352. Nemopanthes fascicularis, RaL Bog back of East lake.

353. Vacciniura corymbosura, L. ;

354. V. macrocarpon, Ait.

355. Cassandra calyculata, Don. Common.

356. Kalmia glauca. Ait. Rare; bog back of East lake.

357. Larix Americana, Michx. Also bottoms, etc.

358. Eriophorum polystachyon, L. Bog back of East lake.

C. — Along rills in !-avines. springs, etc.

359. Deutaria diphylla, L. •

360. Cardamine rhomboidea, DC.

361. Mytella nuda, L. In moss.

362. Chrysosplenium Americanum, Schwein.

363. Araiia hispida. Vent. Sandy ditches along railroad.

364. Vaccinium Canadense, Kalm. Moist banks, etc.

365. Mimulus Jamesii. Torr. About springs, rare.

366. Veronica Americana. Schweinitz. Springs.

367. Goodyera repens, R. Br. In moss, rare.

368. G. Menziesii, Lindl. Moist ravines, rare.

369. Eleocharis intermedia, Schultes. Springs.

370. Carex tenella, Schkuhr. Springs, also swamps.

371. C. canescens vulgaris. Bailey. Springs, etc.

372. C. trisperma, Dewey. Springs and bogs.

373. Lycopodium annotinuni, L. Rills in timberlands.

374. Marchantia polymorpha. L. Springy banks, and low ground.

375. Conocephalus conicus. Dumort. Wet ravines.

18

138 MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

D. — Swales and shaded bogs, etc.

376. Coptis trifolia, Salisb. Also all wet shaded places.

377. Viola blanda, Willd. Common.

378. V. blanda palustriformis, Gray.

379. Rubus hispidus, L.

380. Geum album, Gmelin.

381. Tiarella cordifolia, L. Filer's Camp, Lake Co.

382. Ribes floridum, L'Her.

383. Circaea alpina, L.

384. Slum cicutaefolium, Gmel. Partly imm»^rsed.

385. Hydrocotyle Americana. L.

386. Urtica gracilis, Ait.

387. Laportea Canadensis, Gaud.

388. Boehmeria cyliudrica, Willd.

389. Cyripedium spectabile, Salisb.

390. Juncus tenuis congestus, Engelm.

391. Carex intumescens, Rudge.

392. C. monile, Tuckerni.

393. C. retrorsa, Schwein.

394. C. hystricina, Muhl.

395. C. hystricina Dudleyi, Bailey.

396. C. Pseudo-Cyperus Americana, Hochst.

397. C. crinita, Lam.

398. C. conjuncta, Boott. Rare.

399. C. echinata cephalantha, Bailey.

400. Muhlenbergia glomerata. Trin.

401. Cinna pendula, Trin.

402. Equisetum sylvaticum, L.

B. — Swamps and open bogs.

403. Caltha palustris, L.

404. Nasturtium palustre, DC.

405. Ilex verticillata, Gray.

406. Acer rubrum, L.

407. Spiraea salicifolicpa. T..

408. Geum rivale, L.

409. Rosa Carolina, L.

410. Pyrus arbutifolia, L. f. Very abundant.

411. Ribes rubrum subglandulosura, Maxim.

412. Penthorum sedoides, L.

413. Proserpinaca palustris, L.

414. Epilobium coloratum, Muhl. Scottville.

415. B. adenocaulon, Haussk.

416. Bernla angustifolia, Koch. In water, Scottville.

417. Cicuta maculata, L. Amphibious.

418. C. bulbifera, L.

419. Nyssa sylvatica. Marsh.

420. Viburnum Lentago, L.

421. Cephalanthus occidentalis, L.

422. Vernonia Noveboracensis, Willd.

423. Eupatorium purpureum, L.

424. E. perfoliatum, L.

425. Solidago rugosa, Mill.

426. Aster Tradescanti, L.

427. A. paniculatus, Lam.

428. Lactuca leucophaea. Gray.

429. Lobelia cardinalis, L.

430. L. syphilitica, L.

431. Lysimachia ihyrsiflora, L. Often in water.

432. Apocynum cannablnum, L.

433. Asclepias incarnata, L. Often in water.

434. Menyanthes trifoliata, L. Limose.

435. Chelone glabra, L.

436. Pedicularis lanceolata, Michx.

DANIELS ON FLORA OF MANISTP^E, MICHIGAN. 138

437. Verbena hastata, L.

438. Mentha Canadensis, L.

439. Scutellaria lateriflora, L.

440. S. galericulata, L.

441. Stachys aspera, Michx.

442. Rumex verticillatus, L. Often in water.

443. Polygonum lapathifolium, L.

444. P. Muhlenbergii, Watson. Amphibious.

445. P. Hartwrightii, Gray.

446. P. Hydropiper, !>.

447. P. acre. H B K.

448. P. sagittatum, L.

449. Betula pumila, L.

450. Quercus bicolor, Willd.

451. Salix discolor, Muhl.

452. S. discolor prinoides, Anders.

453. S. petiolaris, Smith.

454. S. Candida, Willd.

455. S. cordata, Muhl.

456. Iris versicolor, L. Amphibious.

457. Juncus nodosus, L.

458. J. Canadensis longieaudatus, Engelm.

459. Typha latifolia, L. Amphibious.

460. Arissema triphyllum, Torr. All low. shady places.

461. Alisma Plantago, L. Amphibious.

462. Cyperus strigosus, L.

463. Dulichium spathaceum, Pers.

464. Scirpus sylvaticus digynus, Boeckl.

465. Carex lupulina, Muhl.

466. C. utriculata, Boott.

467. C. Tuckermani, Dewey.

468. C. stricta, Lam. Forming tussocks.

469. C. straminea alata, Bailey.

470. Panicum clandestinum, L, Open moist places.

471. Glyceria Canadensis, Trin.

472. G. pallida, Trin.

473. G. grandis, Watson.

474. Woodwardia Virginica. Smith.

475. Aspidium Thelypteris, Swartz.

476. A. Noveboracense. Swartz.

477. Osmunda regalis, L

478. O. Claytoniana, L.

479. O. cinnamomea. T^.

I

F. — Marsh meadows.

480. Anemone Pennsylvanica, L.

481. Ranunculus septentrionalis, Polr.

482. Sarracenia purpurea, L. Near Bar lake.

483. Cardamine Pennsylvanica, Muhl.

484. Stellaria longifolla, Muhl.

485. Lathyru.s palustris, L.

486. Drosera rotundifolia. L. Bar lake meadows.

487. Epilobium angustifolium, L. Also dry soils.

488. Oenothera pumila, L. Rare.

489. Galium trifidum, L.

490. G. asprellum, Michx.

491. Aster puniceus, L. Wet open places.

492. A. puniceus lucidulus. Gray.

493. Rudbeckia laciniata, L. Also bottoms.

494. Coreopsis discoidea, T. & G.

495. Bidens frondosa, Ij. A weed everywhere.

496. B. connata. Muhl.

497. B. cernua, L.

498. Helenium autumnale, L. Rare.

499. Campanula aparinoides. Pursh.

1^ MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

500. Steironema ciliatum, Raf.

501. Lysimachia stricta. Ait. Al.su i>uib bearing form.

502. Gentiana Andrew.sii. Gri.seb.

503. Gerardia purpurea paupercula, Gray.

504. Lycopus Virginicus, J^. All open wet places.

505. L. sinuatus, Ell.

506. Rumex Britannica, L. Often in water.

507. Polygonum dumetorum scandens. Gray. Also in moist thickets.

508. Sisyrinchium angustifolium. Mill.

509. Juncus effusus, L.

510. J. effusus conglomeratus, Engelm. Scottville.

511. J. tenuis, Willd. A weed along paths.

512. J. articulatus, L.

513. J. acuminatus debilis, Engelm.

514. Scirpus atrovirens, Muhl. Amphibious.

515. Eriophorum cyperinum, L. Amphibious.

516. Cladium mariscoides, Torr.

517. Carex flava, T.<. Very abundant.

518. C. vulpinoidea, Michx.

519. C. siccata, Wahl.

520. C. tribuloides reducia, Bailey.

521. C. tribuloides Bebbii. Bailey. Wet meadows.

522. C. tribuloides cristata, Bailey.

523. Spartina cynosuroides, Willd.

524. Leersia oryzoides, Swartz. Amphibious.

525. Hierochloe borealis, R. & S.

526. Calamagrostis Canadensis, Beauv. Common.

527. Eatonia Pennsylvanica, Gray.

528. Poa serotina, Ehrh.

529. Glyceria nervata, Triu.

530. Botrychium ternatum lunarioides, Eaton.

531. Ophioglossum vulgatum, L. Bar lake meadows.

G. — Margins of lakes, ponds, etc.

532. Ranunculus sceleratus, L. Limose.

533. Viola lanceolata, L. South shore of Canfleld lake.

534. Elodes campanulata, Pursh. Amphibious.

535. Potentilla palustris. Scop. Amphibious.

536. Decodon verticlllatus, Ell. Manistee lake.

537. Ludwigia palustris, Ell. Limose.

538. Gnaphalium uliginosum, L. Puddles.

539. Lobelia Kalmii, L. Amphibious.

540. Mimulus ringens, L. Amphibious.

541. Utricularia cornuta, Michx. Shore of Bar lake.

542. Mentha viridis, L. Along streams, etc.

543. M. piperita, L. Along streams, etc.

544. Polygonum amphibium, I.,.

545. Myrica Gale, L. Margin of Bar lake.

546. Salix nigra, Marsh. Fringing streams.

547. S. lucida, Muhl. Banks of streams.

548. Spiranthes cernua, Richard. Bar lake.

549. Juncus Canadensis brachycephalus, Engelm.

550. J. Canadensis coarctatus. Engelm.

551. Sparganium simplex androcladum. Engelm. Amphibious.

552. S. minimum, PYies. Manistee lake.

553. Acorus Calamus, L. Amphibious.

554. Sagittaria variabilis, Engelm. Amphibious.

555. S. variabilis angustifolia, Engelm.

556. Triglochin palustris, L. West shore of Bar lake.

557. T. maritima, L. Moist sands between Bar lake and I,ake Michigan.

558. Cyperus diandrus, L. All wet open places.

559. Eleocharis ovata, R. Br.

560. E. palustris, R. Br.

561. E. tenuis, Schultes.

562. E. compressa. Sull.

DANIELS ON FLORA OF MANISTEE, MICHIGAN. 141

563. E. acicularis, R. Br. Dried pools late in autumn.

564. Fimbristylis autumnalis, R. & S. Bar lake.

565. Scripus pungens, Vahl. Amphibious.

566. S. lacustris, L. Shallow to deep water.

567. Zizania aquatica, L. In water, usually.

568. Alopecurus geniculatus aristulatus, Torr. Limose.

569. Phragmites communis, Trin. Amphibious.

570. Glyceria fluitans, R. Br.

571. Equisetum palustre, L. r' .

572. E. limosum, L. Amphibious. '

573. E. variegatum, Scbleich. Very wet shores.

H. — Aquatic in lakes, ponds and streams.

574. Ranunculu.s aquatilis trichophyllus. Gray. Manistee lake.

575. Nymphsea reniformis, DC. Bar lake, etc.

576. Nuphar advena, Ait. f. Muddy water, etc.

577. Nasturtium officinale, R. Br. Scottville.

578. Myriophyllum heterophyllum, Michx. Manistee lake.

579. Bidens Beckii, Torr. Very rare, Manistee lake.

580. Utricularia vulgaris, L. Shallow stagnaijt water.

581. Ceratophyllum demersum, L.

582. Elodea Canadensis, Michx. Common; thrown up on the beach by the" waves

of Lake Michigan.

583. Vallisneria spiralis, L. Lakes; thrown up on the beach by the waves of

Lake Michigan.

584. Pontederia cordata, L.

585. Spirodela polyrrhiza, Schleid.

586. Lemna ti'isulca, L.

587. L. minor, L.

588. Potamogeton fluitans, Roth.

589. P. amplifolius, Tuck.

590. P. Illinoensis, Morong.?

591. P. heterophyllus, Schreb.

592. P. Zigii, M. & K.

593. P. lucens, L.

594. P. perfoliatus lanceolutus, Robbins.

595. P. Zosterjefolius, Schum.

596. P. pauciflorus, Pursh.

597. P. pauciflorus niagarensis. Gray. Thrown up on the beach by the waves of

Lake Michigan.

598. P. pusillus, L.

599. P. mucronatus, Schrad.

600. P. pectinatus, L.

601. Naias flexilis, R. & S.

602. Riccia fluitans, L.

603. R. natans, L.

IV. — Parasites and saprophytes.

604. Monotropa uniflora, L. Common in woods.

605. M. Hj'popitys, L. Beech woods.

606. Epiphegus Virginiana, Bart. Beech woods.

607. Cuscuta Gronovii, Willd. Low ground.

608. Corallorhiza innata, R. Brown. Timberlands.

609. C. multiflora, Nutt. Timberlands and sandy woods.

V. — Anthropophytes.

A. — Forage plants, etc.

610. Trifolium pratense, I-.

611. T. medium, L. Scottville.

612. T. repens.'L.

613. T. hybridum, L. .

614. Medicago sativa, I>.

615. Vicia sativa, L. Rare; along M. & N. E. tracks.

142 MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

616. Setaria Italica, Kunth. Along M. & N. E. tracks.

617. Anthoxanthum odoratum, L. I^wns.

618. Phleum pratense, L.

619. Agrostls alba, L. Also low ground.

620. Dactyl is glomerata, T^.

621. Poa annua, L.

622. P. compressa, L.

623. P. pratensis, Ij. Common everywhere.

624. Festuca elatior pratensis, Gray. Lawns, etc.

625. Loliura perenne. L. I>awns.

B.— Weeds.

626. Ranunculus repens, L." Lawns, also wet places.

627. Erysimum cheiranthoides, L. Streets; yards, Scottville.

628. Sisymbrium officinale. Scop.

629. Brassica Sinapistrum. Boiss. Also beach of Lake Michigan.

630. B. nigra, Koch.

631. Capsella Bursa-pastoris, Moench.

632. Thlaspi arvense, L.? One plant Fifth street.

633. Lepidium intermedium, Gray.

634. Silene antirrhina. !.■. Waste places.

635. S. noctiflora, L.

636. Lychnis vespertina, Sibth. Very common north of river.

637. L. Githago, Lam. Wheatfields.

638. Stellaria media. Smith. Everywhere.

639. Cerastium viscosum, L. Lawns, rare.

640. C. vulgatum, L. Everywhere.

641. Portulaca oleracea, L. Gardens, etc.

642. Hypericum perforatum, L.

643. Malva rotundifolia, L. Barnyards, etc.

644. Melilotus officinalis, Willd. Streets, rare.

645. M. alba, Lam. Streets.

646. Medicago lupulina, L. Lawns and streets.

647. Potentilla argentea, L. Sandy fields.

648. CEnothera biennis, L. Ubiquitous.

649. Echinocystis lobata, T. & G. Waste places, rubbish heaps, etc.

650. Erigeron Canadensis, L. Especially stubble grounds.

651. E. annuus, Pers. Meadows, etc.

652. B. strigosus, Muhl,

653. Ambrosia artemisisefolia, L.

654. A. psilostachya, DC. Yard and roadside, Maple street, near Catholic cemetery.

655. Anthemis Cotula, DC. Yards.

656. Achillea Millefolium, L.

657. Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum, L. Rare.

658. Artemisia biennis, Willd.

659. Arctium Lappa, L.

660. Cnicus lanceolatus, Hoffm.

661. C. arvensis, Hoffm. Common on clay beach of Lake Mich., as well as in fields.

662. Cichorium Intybus, L. Streets.

■ 663. Tragopogon pratensis, L. Streets.

664. Taraxacum oflRcinale, Weber.

665. I^^ctuca Scariola, L.

666. Sonchus oleraceus, L.

667. S. arvensis, L. Streets, very rare.

668. Apocynum androseemifollum, L.

669. Asclepias Cornuti, Decaisne. Also flats, etc.

670. Cynoglossum officinale, L.

671. Echinospermum I.appula, Lehm. Found also on beach sands of Lake Mich.

672. Physalis Virginiana. Mill. Sandy fields, etc.

673. Datura Tatula, L. Waysides, rare.

674. Verbascum Thapsus, L.

675. Linaria vulgaris, Mill.

676. Veronica serpyllifolia, L.

677. V. peregrina L.

678. Verbena urticsefolia, I..

DANIELS UN FLORA OP MANISTEE, MICHIGAN. 143

t>79. Nepeta Cataria, L. Yards.

680. Leonurus Cardiaca, L. Hedges and barn yards.

tiSl. Plantago major, L. Yards.

(582. P. Rugelii, Dec. Yards, also lake margins.

083. P. lanceolata, L.

684. Amarantus retroflexus, L.

685. A. albus, L.

686. A. blltoides, Wats.

687. Gycloloma platyphyllum, Moq. Pere Marquette tracks, Bast lake.

688. Chenopodium album, L.

689. C. hybrldum. L.

690. C. ambrosioldes anthelminticum. Gray. Prefers coal ashes.

691. Salsola tragus, L. Fields, also sands, etc.

692. Phytolacca decandra, L. Also open woods, etc.

693. Rumex crispus, L.

694. R. obtusifollus discolor, Wall.

695. R. Acetosella, L.

696. Polygomum aviculare. L. Door yards, etc.

697. P. erectum, L.

698. P. Persicaria, L.

699. P. Convolvulus. L

700. Euphorbia maculata, L.

701. E. Preslii, Guss.

702. Urtica dioica, L.

703. Panicum glabrum, Gaud. Rare.

704. P. sanguinale. I.-.

705. P. capillare, L. An autumnal weed in low cultivated grounds e.specially.

706. P. Crus-galli, L. Barnyards, also wet places.

707. Setaria glauca, Beauv.

708. S. viridis, Beauv.

709. Muhleubergia diffusa, Schueb. Also wet places.

710. Eragrostis major. Host. Gardens, etc.

711. E. Purshii, Schrad. Roadside.

712. Bromus secalinus, L. Wheat fields.

713. B. mollis, L. Along M. & N. E. tracks.
717. Brassica campestris, L.

C. — Escapes, etc.

715. Fumaria officinali.s, L. Yards.

716. Nasturtium Armoracia, Fries.

717. Brassica campestris, L.

718. Dianthus barbatus, L. Neglected part of cemetery.

719. Gypsophila muralis, L. Streets, rare.

720. Saponaria officinalis, L. Roadsides.

721. Silene Cucubalus, Wibel. Roadsides.

722. Lychnis Coronaria, L. Neglected part of cemetery,

723. Malva moschata, L. Roadsides.

724. Linum usitatissimum, L. M. & N. E. tracks.

725. Rosa rubiginosa, L. Roadsides.

726. Sedum acre, L. Spreading in a sandy field opposite Catholic cemetery.

727. S. Telephium, L. Roadsides.

728. Daucus Carota, L. Streets.

729. Pastinaca sativa, L. Fields and streets.

730. Foeniculum officinale, All. Streets, rare.

731. Carum Carul, L. Streets.

732. Bellis perennis, L. Persistent in old lawns.

733. Helianthus annuus, L. Waste places, etc.

734. Chrysanthemum Parthenium, Pers. .M. & N. B. tracks.

735. Tanacetum vulgare, L. Roadsides.

736. T. Balsamita, L. Roadsides.

737. Artemisia Absinthium, L. Scottville

738. Tragopogon porrifolius. L. Streets.

739. Echium vulgare, L. Streets.

740. Convolvulus arvensis, L. Streets; also along M. & N. E. tracks.

741. Nepeta Glechoma. Benth. Yards and lawns.

144 MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

742. Fagopyrum esculentum, Moench. Fields.

743. Euphorbia Cyparissias, L. Streets, etc.

744. Cannabis sativa, L. Wet places.

745. Humulus Lupulus, L. Roadsides; also low ground.

746. Populus alba, L. Spreading in yards.

747. P. dilatata, L. Spreading in yards and roadsides.

748. Asparagus officinalis, L.

749. Lilium tigrinum, Ker. Neglected part of cemetery.

750. Bromus brizoeformis, F. & M. Streets.

Notes.

85. I have called this a form of Juniperus communis, L., which grows on the
narrow divide between Bar lake and Lake Michigan. The shrub bends over on
the ground equally in every direction in the way characteristic of J. communis
alpina. Gaud, as I saw it at Arlington Heights, Mass. The leaves are closely
appressed to the stem, but I could not see that they are much shorter than in the
type.

126. This is a form of Panicum nitidum, Michx. (-P. spfprocarpon. Ell.) pilose
with long white spreading hairs. It agrees with New England specimens marked
"var. pilosum" in the herbarium of the Harvard botanical laboratory (no name
given as authority for the variety). It is apparently distinct from P. pubescens,
Lam.

176. A form of this golden rod occurs along the M. & N. E. tracks with entire
leaves and ample panicle. The panicle resembles that of S. serotina, Ait., but Is
glabrous as in S. juncea. Ait. It resembles closely a specimen of S. Missouriensis,
Nutt., from New Mexico, which is in my herbarium. Perhaps it is a hybrid between
S. juncea, Ait. and S. serotina. Ait.

236. This 1 found in the herbariums of several high school students at Manistee.
Several said that they gathered it in the woods back of Oak Grove cemetery, but
a diligent search failed to find it there or anywhere in the vicinity of Manistee.
Perhaps it was exterminated the year before by the students. In Lake county,
near Filer's Camp, I found a single specimen.

398. The sedge I have so named grows to a height of about two feet, the culm is
wing margined, presses perfectly flat; the leaves are three to four lines broad, some-
what shorter than the culm; head two inches long, somewhat interrupted, bearing
a few setaceous bracts; perigynium slenderly ovate, long-beaked, the beak toothed
and rough; scale cuspidate, a little shorter than the perigynium, the rib dark
green, the margins greenish white. The leaves are much too broad for C. tere-
tiuscula, Gooden. The culm is too sharply angled for C. decomposita, Muhl. The
beak is not long enough for either C. stipata, Muhl. or C. crus-corvi. Shut. Possibly
it is C. alopecoidea, Tuckerm., but the inner face of the perigynium is three nerved;
it is thickened at the base, not obviously stipitate. It is also larger than in C. vul-
pinoidea, Michx., which does not at all resemble our plant.

590. This plant has large oval opposite floating leaves (2i/!> in. x 5 in.); petiole
short; stipules bicarinate 2-2^/^ in. long; peduncle thickened upwards, over 4 in.
long; nut roundish, tri-keeled, middle keel large. It is near P. amplifolius,
Tuckerm.

632. This plant, too young for accurate determination, has sagittate-clasping
undivided leaves and white flowers.

DANIELS ON FLORA OF STURGIS, MICHIGAN. 14.^

ECOLO(iV OF THE FLOKA OF STUR(iIS. MK 11.. AND VICINITY,

FRANCIS POTTER DANIELS, A. M.

1 was at Stursis, .VJich., from July 10, 1898, to May 15, 1899. During Ibis time I
made a collection of such plants as I needed for my herbarium, and also an ex-
tended and somewhat particular survey of the flora in the vicinity of Sturgis. Alto-
gether (570 species were noted. The late spring and early summer vegetation was
not studied in flower, and doubtless many species thus escaped my notice.

Sturgis is situated in the southeastern portion of St. Joseph county, and lies?
about three miles north of tlie line separating Michigan from Indiana. It is about
fourteen miles south of the 42d parallel and about twenty-four miles west of the
85th meridian. The city is huilt on land originally prairie, and the surrounding
region for some distance also was once prairie. Intermingled with this were ridges
of bur oak openings, boggy meadows, and some swamps surrounded with forests
of a distinct alluvial type. Westward there are several lakes, Klinger being the
largest, and Minnewaukon the nearest to the city.

Much of the region is under cultivation: forests are few, and for the most part,
freely pastured. The wild vegetation is consequently much compressed, and only
the bog flora can be considered virgin. Many plants flee to the railroads, but these
have to suffer frequent burnings. Doubtless many species have suffered extinction.
The pitcher plant (Sarraceria purpurea, L.) and the painted cup (Castilleia
coccinea, Spreng.). I am told, used to be abundant, yet a diligent search failed to
find either. The arable prairie years ago was broken up, the bogs have been
drained as much as possible, the forests have been cleared except the customary
wood lots, and these have been pastured for decades. It is considered a sign of
thrift to clear up the roadsides, and the wayside weed steadily crowds out the
native survivors. Still the flora cannot be said to be in a state of transition. For
years conditions have been as they now are; the losing flght has been fought, and
all now is at peace. A few swamps may yet be ditched, but the flora has reached
nearly its last possible compression.

Nevertheless the flora cannot be considered poor, either in the abundance or
variety of species. Wherever conditions are favorable, there a uniquely rich vege-
tation is found. Probablj' no richer paludose flora can be found elsewhere in the
state. It is true that I found but 670 species, but there must be taken in account
the fact that the vast timberland flora is almost altogether absent, that there are
no coniferous tracts, no hilly barrens or waste sands and dunes, and no proper
alluvial hottoms.

Four floras may be said to intermingle in the vicinity of Sturgis, that of the
prairies of the Mississippi valley, that of the oak openin,gs characteristic of Mich-
igan, that of the alluvial bottoms, and that of the bogs, swamps, lakes and streams.
A considerable proportion of the flora is composed of species proper to the states
just south of Michigan.

The prairie vegetation is perhaps primary to the region, but has suffered most
from the presence of man. It is altogether impossible now to determine accu-
rately what species should be set down as prairie. In fact the presence of this flora
is to be detected only from the fact that certain species peculiar to prairies still
linger in congenial places. If man has compressed this flora, he has also scattered
it. The clearing (jf forests has given it open sunshine elsewhere, and it follows
the railroads for miles beyond its original bounds. Some species like Kuhnia
eupatoriodes, L. and Baptisia Cucantha, T. & G., persist by the wayside, and even
along the streets of the city, but most find refuge in the open bogs, or fringe the
railroad tracks. It has two strata, the upland and the lowland. The former tends
to coalesce with the flora of the oak openings, while the latter is still well preserved
in the prairie bogs lying south and southwest of the eity. It is here that many of
the rarest species of the region are found.

The oak openings are of two types, that characterized by the bur oak (Quercus
macrocarpa, Michx.), whence the adjacent village of Burr Oak gets its name, and
that in which black oak species predominate. The former lies next to the prairies
and has a rich, heavy soil, the latter lies to the north and northwest ami is of a

19

146 MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

lighter and even sandy soil, though the land is seldom pronouncedly barren. The
flora of the oak openings is gradually becoming general to the whole upland
region. Groves have been planted or encouraged to grow even in the prairie dis-
trict, and the hardy autumn vegetation springs up in fence corners, and survives
in some fashion the frequent pasturings In fact these little woodlots have de-
veloped a flora of their own. It is bur oak overhead and burs all around. The
following is a list of species, the seeds of which clung to my clothing after a ven-
ture in one of the groves:

Desmodium nudiflorum, DC.

D. acuminatum, DC.

D. pauciflorum, DC.

D. rotundifolium, DC.

D. Dillenii, Darl.

D. paniculatum, DC.

Agrimonia Eupatoria, L.

Galium aparine, L.

Bidens frondosa, L.

Arctium Lappa, L.

Cynoglossum officinale, 1^.

Echinospermum Virginicum, Lehm. (The worst of the lot.) Nor was there much
else, barring scoke and pennyroyal. Evidently animals had been carrying seed
around for generations, till the whole lot was filled with ticks and burs. A few
forests, however, are more nearly in a primitive condition. Tyler's woods, a few
miles to the southwest, is an example. This forest, bordered by bogs, and alluvial
bottoms, if bottoms there can be where there is no river, has a rich and interesting
flora, several species occurring nowhere else in the vicinity of Sturgis.

The alluvial region referred to above is but a few acres in extent. The flora
of our bottom lands is closely allied to that of the beech and maple timberlands,
but it has more of a hydrophytic tinge and the ash and the elm take the place of
the maple and beech. This little portion of Tyler's woods and adjoining forests
is all the region to which this flora can be ascribed, though on the margins of
wooded swamps a thin stratum of it is to be discerned. As said before, there are
no beech and maple timberlands. In fact I saw only one beech in the whole region.
Species, however, of that flora now and then occur, the spring vegetation espe-
cially in the alluvial woods referred to above.

The paludose, limose and aquatic flora is very well preserved. Setting aside the
prairie bogs, this flora may be divided into swamps bordered with timber and
swales in woods; Cassandra and tamarack bogs; open bogs and marsh meadows
coalescing with the prairie bogs and better referred thither; the wet and limose
margins of streams, ditches and lakes; the sandy margins of lakes; and, finally,
the aquatics in the ponds, lakes and streams. The flora of swamps and swales is
that usual to such places in oak openings. The swamp oak is frequent, as are
poplars and elm. There are a few Cassandra and tamarack bogs with a small
flora very distinct. The Cassandra is a sure evidence that valuable cement beds
lie underneath its brown growth. There are few sti-eams near Sturgis. but a creek
bordered with Zizania lies south close to the Indiana line. The ditches are full
of aquatics, and are lined with limose plants. A peculiar feature of the open bogs
and lowlands is their minty character. The air is fragrant with peppermint, spear-
mint, and our Canadian wild mint. The following list of labiate plants was taken
from a low meadow a few rods in extent:

Mentha viridis. L.

M. piperita, L.

M. sativa. L.

M. Canadensis. L.

Lycopus Virginicus, L.

L. sinuatus. Ell.

Pycnanthemum lanceolatuni. Pursh.

Scutellaria lateriflora, L.

S. galericulata. Ij

Brunella vulgaris. L.

Lake Minnewaukon, the most accessible lake, is typical of those in the vicinity.
Besides its own aquatics, it has a varied vegetation on its shores. Its southern
banks are somewhat steep, open and barren, its eastern shore flat and boggy, its

DANIELS ON FLORA OF STURGIS, MICHIGAN. 147

northern and northwestern sandy and wooded, its western and southwestern low
and filled with rushes, flags, and other amphibious plants. It is a paradise of wil-
lows with hybrids enough to perplex a botanist for a lifetime. Some rare plants
inhabit its shores. Cassia nictitans, L. (found so far as known only here in the
state). Phlox subulata, L., Synthyris Houghtoniana, Benth., Stachys hyssopifolla,
Michx., and Bouteloua racemosa, Lag.

Of xerophytic formations there are but few traces. The dry sandy .shores of
Lake Minnewaukon and other lakes furnish a few characteristic species. Dry
knolls in oak woods, light sandy tracts, etc., have a few xerophytic plants; also
barren places along railroads, where the best soil has been taken off, yield a small
number. But any distinct flora, such as that of the dunes of the great lakes or the
pine barrens of northern Michigan, is totally absent.

The following arrangement of plants conforms sufficiently close, perhaps, to the
character of the region:

I. — Xerophytes.

A. Sterile banks and lake borders.

B. Barrens and light sand.

II. — Mesophytes.

A. Remnants of prairie vegetation.

B. Oak openings.

C. Alluvial bottoms.

III. — Hydrophytes.

A. Swales in woods, and swamps.

B. Prairie bogs.

C. Borders of streams, ponds, and lakes.

D. Aquatics.

*
IV. — Parasites and saprophytes.

(Excluding those with green foliage.)

V. — Anthropophytes.

A. Weeds.

B. Forage plants.

C. Escapes.

The following plants have not. so far as I am aware, been gathered previously
in Michigan:

Native.

Cassia nictitans, L.

Helianthus strumosus mollis, T. & G.

Kceleria cristata gracilis, Gray.

Vitis cordifolia, Michx. (See note).

Rosa lucida, Ehrh. (See note.)

Sagittaria heterophylla angustifolia, Engelm.

Bromus ciliatus latiglumis, Scrib.

Rhynchospora cymosa, Nutt.

Calamagrostis confinis, Nutt.

Panicum proliferum. Lam.

Exotic.

Mentha sativa, L.
Tanacetum Balsamita. L.
Catalpa speciosa. Warder.

The following species, reported previously only from the Upper Peninsula, is
found at Sturgis:

Potamogeton Hillii, Morong.

The known range of the species named below is perhaps extended somewhat:

Brasenia peltata, Pursh.

1*8 MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

Corydalis aurea, Willd.

Malva Alcea, L.

Eryngium yucccefoliuni. Michx.

Solidago rigida, L.

Atriplex patuliim littorale, Gray.

Aristolochia Serpentaria, h.

Habenaria lacera, R. Br.

Aletris farinosa, L.

Smilax ecirrhata, Wats.

Xyris flexuosa, Muhl.

Juncus scirpoides, Lam.

Potamogeton fluitans. Roth.

P. pusillus, L.

Scirpus debilis, Pursh.

S. Smithii, Gray.

Carex conoidea, Schk.

C. gynocrates, Worm.

Elymus striatus villosus, Gray.

Eqnisetura lipvigatura. A. Br.

FLORA OF STURGIS. AUCH., and VICINITY, ECOLOGICALLY ARRANGED.

I. — Xerophytes.
A. Sterile banks and lake border.s.

1. Ranunculus fascicularis, Muhl. Lake Minnewaukon: also waysides.

2. Arenaria serpyllifolia, L. Also a common weed.

3. Lespedeza violacea, Pers. Also woods, etc.

4. L. reticulata, Pers. Lake Minnewaukon.

5. L. Stuvei intermedia. Wats. Also dry woods.*-

a. Cassia nictitans. L. East shore of Lake Minnewaukon.

7. Crataegus coccinea, L. Banks of Lake Minnewaukon; common in ihih lake, etc.

8. Solidago ulmifolia, Muhl. North shore of Minnewaukon.

9. Hieracium Canadense, Michx. Also dry woods.

10. Campanula rotundifolia, L.

11. Phlox subulata, L. South shore of Lake Minnewaukon.

12. Synthyris Houghtoniana, Beuth. South shore of Lake Minnewaukon.

13. Stachys hyssopifolia, Michx. North shore of Lake Minnewaukon.

14. Plantago Rugelii, Decaisne. A slender pubescent form on the shores of I^ke

Minnewaukon: the ordinary form common around dwellings, etc.

15. Bouteloua racemosa. Lag. South shore of Lake Minnewaukon.

B. Barrens -and light sand.

16. Anemone cylindrica. Gray.

17. A. Virginiana, L.

18. Helianthemum Canadense. Michx.

19. I^echea major. Michx.

20. Viola pedala, L.

21. Ceanothus Americanns, L.

22. Rhus copallina, L.

23. Polygala polygama. Walt. Very rare.

24. Lupinus perennis, L. Common along railroads.

25. Lespedeza polystachya. Michx.

26. L. capitata, Michx.

27. Lathj'rus ochroleucus. Hook. Along railroads.

28. Pimpinella integerrima, B. & H.

29. Diervilla trifida, Moench.

30. Solidago speciosa. Xuii.

31. S. nemoralis. Ait.

32. S. rigida, L. Rare along sandy roadsides.

33. Aster sagittifolius, Willd.

34. Antennaria plantaginifolia, Hook.
3.5. Gnaphalium polycephalum, Michx.

DANIELS ON FLORA OF STUIIGIS, MICHIGAN. 149

36. G. decurrens, Ives.

.'?7. I^pachys pinnata, T. & G.

38. Helianthus occidentali.s. Rid.

39. H. strumosus mollis. T. & G. Along railroads.

40. Senecio'aureus obovatus, T. & G. Along railroads.

41. Lactuca integrifolia, Bige). Rare; alongside railroads.

42. Gaylussacia resinosa, T. & G.

43. Vaccinium Pennsylvanicuni. l.ani.

44. Asclepias tuberosa, L.

45. Frasera Carolinensis, Walt. Rare.

46. Lithospermum hirtum, Lelnn.

47. Gerardia pedicularia, L.

48. Anychia dichotoma, Michx. Sandy oak woods.

49. Polygonum tenue, Michx. Hills near Lake Minnewaukon.

50. Euphorbia corollata, L. Also a weed in fields.

51. Salix humilis, Marshall.

52. Tradescantia Virginica. L.

53. Cyperus filiculrais, Vahl.

54. Carex cephaloidea, Dewey.

55. C. cephalophora, Muhl.

56. Panicum depauperatum, Muhl.

57. P. dichotomum. L.

58. P. dichotomum commune, Wats.

59. P. dichotomum fasciculatum, Wats.

60. P. dichotomum gracile. Wats.

61. Andropogon furcatus, Muhl. Open places.

62. A. scoparius. Michx.

63. Chrysopogon nutans, Benth.

64. Aristida purpurascens, Poir. Very rare.

65. Agrostis scabra, Willd.

66. Danthonia spicata, Beauv.

67. Kceleria cristata gracilis, Gray. Rare.

68. Pteris aquilina. L.

II. — Mesophytes.

A. Remnants of prairie vegetation along roadsides, railroads, and in fields. •

69. Corydalis aurea, Willd.

70. Viola sagittata. Ait. Along railroads.

71. Polygala sanguinea, L. Along railroads, especially near bogs.

72. Baptisia leucantha, T. & G.

73. Amorpha canescens, Nutt.

74. Tephrosia Virginiana, Pers.

75. Astragalus Canadensis, L. Rare.

76. Desmodium canescens, DC.

77. D. Canadense, DC.

78. D. sessilifolium, T. & G.

79. Potentilla arguta. Ph.

80. Kuhnia eupatorioides, I>.

81. Liatris scariosa, Willd.

82. Solidago juncea. Ait.

83. Silphium terebinthinaceum, L.

84. Rudbeckia hirta. L. Becoming a weed in fields.

85. Coreopsis palmata. Nutt Rare along railroads.

86. Asclepias obtusifolia, Michx.

87. Hedeoma pulegioides, Pers. Common.

88. Stipa spartea, Trin. Very rare.

89. Festuca tenella. Willd. Roadsides.

90. Equisetum la?vigatum. Braun. Railroads.

13 Oak openings.

91. Anemone nemorosa, L.

92. Hepatica triloba, Chaix.

93. Anemonella thalictroides. Spach.

150 MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

94. Thalictrum dioiciim. L.

95. Ranunculus abortivus, L.

96. Aquilegia Canadensis, L.

97. Podophyllum peltatum, L.

98. Sanguinaria Canadensis, L.

99. Viola palmata, L.

100. V. palmata cucullata, Gray.

101. V. pubescens, Ait.

102. Claytonia Virginica, L. Also bottoms.

103. Geranium maculatum, L.

104. Celastrus scandens, L.

105. Vitis aestivalis, Michx. Fence rows, etc.

106. V. cordifolia, Michx. Fence rows and thickets.

107. Ampelopsis quinquefolia, Michx.

108. Rhus typhina, L.

109. R. glabra, L.

110. Desmodium nudiflorum, DC.

111. D. acuminatum, DC.

112. D. pauciflorum, DC.

113. D. rotundifolium, DC.

114. D. cuspidatum, T. & G.

115. D. Dillenii, Darl.

116. D. paniculatum, DC.

117. Amphicarpsea monoica, Nutt.

118. Gymnocladus Canadensis. I am. Only two or three trees.

119. Prunus Americana. Marshall.

120. P. Virginiana, L.

121. P. serotina, Bhrh.

122. Rubus occidentalis, L.

123. R. villosus, Ait.

124. R. Canadensis, L. Borders of thickets and in fields.

125. Fragaria Virginiana, Mill.

126. F. vesia. L.

127. Potentilla Canadensis, L. Fields, etc., as well as forests.

128. Agrimonia Eupatoria, L. Especially open places in woods.

129. A. parvi flora, Ait. One plant in oak woods.

130. Rosa lucida, Ehrh.

131. R. hurailis, Marsh.

132. Pyrus coronaria, L.

133. Amelanchier Canadensis. T. & G. Uncommon.

134. Ribes Cynosbati, L.

135. Hamamelis Virginiana, L.

136. Sanicula Marylandica, L.

137. Aralia racemosa, L.

138. Cornus florida, L.

139. Sambucus Canadensis, L.

140. Viburnum acerifolium, L.

141. V. pubescens, Pursh.

142. Triosteum perfoliatum, L.

143. I onicera glauca. Hill.

144. Galium pilosum. Ait.

145. G. circaezans, Michx.

146. G. boreale, L.

147. G. triflorum, Michx.

148. Eunatorium ageratoides, L. Tyler's woods.

149. Solidasro caesia, L.

150. S. latifolia, L.

151. S. serotina. Ait.

152. S. Camdensia. L. Often in fields and open places.

153. Aster corymbosus. Ait.

154. A. macrophyllus. L.

155. A. azureus, Lindl.

156. A. undi'l'^tus, L. Often in fields.

157. A. cordifolius, T^.

158. A. Isevis, L.

159. Erigeron bellidifolius, Muhl.

DANIELS ON FLORA OF STURGIS, MICHIGAN. 15!

160. Helianthus divaricatus, L.

161. Coreopsis tripteris, L.

162. Cacalia atriplicii'olia, L. Also open places, roadsides, etc.

163. Erechtites hieracifolia, Raf. New clearings and swamps.

164. Krisia amplexicaulis, Nutt. Tyler's woods, blooming in Sept.

165. Hieracium venosum, L.

166. H. scabrum, Michx.

167. Prenanthes alba, L. Tyler's woods.

168. P. altissima, L. Tyler's woods.

169. Lactuca Canadensis. I.,. Common everywhere.

170. Gaultheria procumbens, L. Rare.

171. Chimaphila umbellata. Nutt.

172. Pyrola secunda, L.

173. Asclepias purpurascens, L.

174. A. phytolaccoides, Pursh.

175. Phlox pilosa, L. Tyler's woods.

176. Echino-spermum Virginicum, Lehm.

177. Scrophularia nodosa Mai'ilandiea, Gray.

178. Veronica Virginica, L.

179. Gerardia flava, L.

180. G. quercifolia, Pursh.

181. Pedicularis Canadensis, L.

182. Melampyrum Americanum, Michx.

183. Collinsonia Canadensis, L. Tyler's woods.

184. Monarda fistulosa, L.

185. Blephilia ciliata, Raf.

186. Brunella vulgaris, L.

187. Aristolochia Serpentaria, L. Rare; Tyler's woods.

188. Sassafras officinale, Nees.

189. Comandra umbellata, Nutt.

190. Ulmus fulva, Michx. Rare, only one tree noted.

191. Juglans cinerea, L.

192. J. nigra, L.

193. Carya alba, Nutt.

194. C. tomentosa, Nutt.

195. C. microcarpa, Nutt.

196. C. amara, Nutt.

197. Corylus Americana, Walt.

198. Ostrya Virginica, Willd.

199. Carpiuus Caroliniana, Walt.

200. Quercus alba, L.

201. Q. macrocarpa, Michx.

202. Q. prinoides, Willd.

203. Q rubra, L.

204. Q.'coccinea, Wang.

205. Q tinctoria, Bart.

206. Q imbricaria, Michx.

207. Fagus ferruginea. Ait. Very rare, only one tree noted.

208. Cypripedium pubesceus, Willd. Rare.

209. Hypoxis erecta, L.

210. Dioscorea villosa, L.

211. Smilax herbacea, L.

212. Polygonatum biflorum. Ell.

213. P. giganteum. Diet.

214. Smilacina racemosa, Desf.

215. S. stellata, Desf.

216. Trillium grandiflorum, Salisb.

217. Carex varia, Muhl. «,

218. C. Pennsylvanica, Lam.

219. Panicum latifolium, L.

220. Muhlenbergia sylvatica. T. & G

221. M. Willdenovii, Trin. Tyler's woods.

222. M. diffusa, Schreber. Common also in yards, etc.

223. Brachyelytrum aristatum, Beauv. Tyler's woods.

224. Agrostis perennans, Tuck.

225. Poa debilis, Torr. Tyler's woods.

152 MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

226. Festuca nutans, Willd. Tyler's woods.

227. Bronius ciliatus. L;

228. B. ciliatus purgans. Gray.

229. B. ciliatus latiRlumis. Scrib.

230. Asropyron caninum, R. &r S.

231. Elymus Vlrginicus. L.
2.32. E. Canadensis, [..

233. E. Canadensis jilaucifolius, Gray.

234. E. striatus, Willd.

235. E. striatus villosus. Gray.

236. Asprella Hystri.x, Willd.

237. Finns Strobus. L. A few trees near Klinger lake.

238. Juniperus communis. L. Rare on hillsides.

239. Adiantum pedatum, L.

240. Phegopteris hexagonoptera, Fee. Tyler's woods.

241. Aspidium spinulosum, Swartz.

242. A. acrostichoides, Swartz.

243. Botrychium Vlrginianum, Swartz.

C. — Alluvial bottoms.

244. Clematis Virginiana. L.

245. Hydrastis Canadensis, Ij. Tyler's woods.

246. Viola canina Muhlenbergii, Gray. Tyler's woods.

247. Tilia Americana, h.

248. Acer saccharinum, Wang.

249. Acer rubrum, L.

250. Mitella diphylla, L. Tyler's woods.

251. Ribes rubrum subglandulosum. Maxim.

252. Circaea Lutetiana, L.

253. Osmorrhiza longistylis, DC.

254. Sambucus racemosa. L.

255. Mitchella repens, L.

256. Campanula Americana. L.

257. Fraxinus Americana. I...

258. F. sambucit'olia. Lam.

259. Phlox divaricata, L. Tyler's woods.

260. Hydrophyllum Virginicum, L.

261. H. appendiculatum. .Michx.

262. Phryma Leptostachya, L.

263. Blephilia hirsuta, P.enth.

264. Polygonum Vlrginianum, L.

265. Ulmus Americana, L.

266. Urtica gracilis, Ait.

267. T.aportoa Canadensis, Gaud.

268. Platanus occidentalis. L.

269. Aplectrum hiemale, Nutt. Rare, one plant in Tyler's woods.

270. Smilax ecirrhata. Watson. Rare, Tyler's woods.

271. Allium tricoccum. Ait. Tyler's woods.

272. Cvulana grandiflora. Smith. Tyler's woods.

273. Erythronium Americanum, Ker.

274. Arisa^ma triphyllum, Torr.

275. A. Dracontium, Schott.

276. Carex debilis Rudgei. Bailey.

277. C. gracillima, Schwein.

278. C. grisea, Wahl.

279. C. laxiflora varlans, Bailey.

280. C. laxiflora patulifolia, Carey.

281. C. polytrichoides, Muhl.

282. C. rosea, Schk.

283. Leersia Virginica. Willd.

284. Clnna arundinacea, Ij.

285. Eatonia Pennsylvanica. Gray.

286. Poa sylvestris. Gray. Tyler's woods.

287. P. alsodes, Gray. Tyler's woods.

288. Asplenium Filix-fu?mina, Beruh.

289. Cystopteris bulbifera, Beruh.

DANIELS ON FLORA OF STURGIS, MICHIGAN. 153

III. — Hydrophytes.
A. Swales in woods and swamps.

290. Caltlia palustrLs. 1^.

291. Viola blanda, Willd.

292. V. blanda palustriforrais, Gray. Tyler's woods.

293. Stellaria lonsifolia. Muhl.

294. Hypericum prolificum, L.

295. H. ellipticum. Hook.

296. H. maculatum. Walt.

297. H. inutilum, L.

298. Imi)atiens fulva.. Nutt.

299. Ilex verticillata, Gray.

300. Rhns venenata, D. C. Also lake borders.

301. R. Toxicodendron, 1j. Everywhere in all soils.

302. Rubus triflorus, Richard.

303. R. strigosus. Michx.

304. Geum rivale, li.

305. Rosa Carolina, ij.

306. Pyrus arbutifolia, L. f.

307. Ribes floridum, L'Her.

308. Zi/.ia aurea, Koch.

309. Cicuta bulbifera. L.

310. Cornns sericea, L.

311. Viburnum Lentago, L.

312. Cephalanthus occidentalis, L.

313. Solidago rugosa, Mill.

314. Aster Novaj-Angliae, L.

315. A. Novfe-Angliae roseus. Gray.

316. A. puniceus, L.

317. A. umbellatus, Mill.

318. Rudbeckia laciniata, J.,.

319. Cnicus altissimus, Willd.

320. C. altissimus discolor. Gray.

321. C. muticus, Pursh. <

322. Lactuca leucophsea, Gray.

323. Lobelia cardinalis, L.

324. L. syphilitica, L.

325. Cassandra calyculata, Don. Peat bogs.

326. Trientalis Americana, Pursh.

327. Steironema ciliatum, Raf.

328. Apocynum cannabinum, L.

329. Gentiana Andrewsii. Grieseb.

330. Chelone glabra, L.

331. Lophanthus nepetoides, Benth.

332. Ruraex verticillatus. L.

333. Polygonum Muhleubergii, Wats. Amphibious.

334. P. Hartwrightii. Gray. Amphibious.

335. P. sagittatum, L.

336. P. dumetorum scandens, Gray.

337. Acalypha Virginica, L.

338. Boehraeria cylindrica. Willd.

339. Alnus incana, Willd.

340. Quercus bicolor. Willd.

341. Salix rostrata. Rich.

342. S. discolor, Muhl.

343. S. petiolaris. Smith.

344. S. Candida, Willd.

345. S. cordata, Muhl. , .

346. Populus tremuioides, Michx. Common also in woods.

347. P. grandidentata, Michx. Also woods.

348. Iris versicolor, L. Amphibious.

349. Smilax hispida, Muhl.

350. Maianthemum Canadense, Desf.

351. .Tnncus effusus. L. Amphibious.

20

154 MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

352. J. tenuis, Willd.

353. Typha latifolia, L. Amphibious.

354. Cyperus strigosus, L.

355. C. erythrorhizos, Muhl.

356. Dulichium spathaceum, Pers.

357. Eriophorum lineatum, B. & H.

358. E. gracile, Koch.

359. Carex folliculata, L.

360. C. intumescens, Rudge.

361. C. lupulina, Muhl.

362. C. utriculata. Boot.

363. C. Tuckermani, Dewey.

364. C. stricta, Lam. Forming tussocks in swamps.

365. C. crinita. Lam.

366. C. tenella, Schk.

367. C. tribuloides, Wahl.

368. C. tribuloides cristata, Bailey.

369. Panicum virgatum, L. Rare; also along railroad.

370. P. clandestinum, L.

371. Muhlenbergia glomerata, Trin,

372. Glyceria nervata, Trin.

373. G. pallida, Trin. Very wet places.

374. Larix Americana, Michx. Peat bogs, rare.

375. Equisetum arvense, L. Common in dry as well as wet soil.

376. E. hyemale, L.

377. Aspidium Thelypteris, Swartz.

378. A. Noveboracense, Swartz.

379. A. Boottii, Tuck. Alder thicket, Tyler's woods.

380. A. cristatum, Swartz.

381. Onoclea sensibilis, L.

382. Osmunda regalis, L.

383. O. cinnamomea, L.

B. Prairie bogs.

384. Lathyrus palustris. L.

385. Spiraea salicifolia, L.

386. S. tomentosa, L.

387. Geum album, Gmelin.

388. G. macrophyllum, Willd.

389. Potentilla Norvegica, L.

390. P. palustris, Scop.

391. P. fruticosa, L.

392. Parnassia Caroliniana, Michx.

393. Lythrum alatum. Pursh.

394. Epilobium spicatum. Lam.

395. E. strictum, Muhl.

396. E. coloratum, Muhl.

397. E. adenocaulon, Haussk.

398. Tiedemannia rigida, C. & R.

399. Cicuta maculata, L.

400. Eryngium yuccajfolium, Michx.

401. Galium trifidum, L.

402. Eupatorium purpureum, L.

403. E. perfoliatum, L.

404. Solidago Riddellii, Frank.

405. S. lanceolata, L.

406. Aster Tradescanti, L.

407. A. paniculatus. Lam.

408. Helianthus giganteus, L.

409. Coreopsis aristosa, Michx. Bogs for acres yellow with it in autumn.

410. Bidens frondosa, L. A common weed.

411. B. cernua, L.

412. Prenanthes racemosa, Michx, Rare.

413. Campanula aparinoides, Pursh.

DANIELS ON FLORA OF STURGIS, MICHIGAN. 156

414. Asclepias, incarnata, L.

415. Sabbatia angularis, Pursh.

416. Gentiana crinita, Froel.

417. Bartonia tenella, Muhl. Very rare.

418. Convolvulus sepium, L.

419. Mimulus ringens, L.

420. M. alatus. Ait.

421. Ilysanthcs riparia, Raf.

422. Gerardia purpurea paupercula, Gray.

423. Pedicularis Canadensis, L.

424. Verbena hastata, L.

425. Mentha viridis, L.

426. M. piperita, Ij.

427. M. sativa, L.

428. M. Canadensis, L.

429. Lycopus Virginicus. Jj.

430. L. sinuatus, Ell.

431. Pj'cnanthemum lanceolatum, Pursh.

432. Scutellaria lateriflora, L.

433. S. galericulata, L.

434. Rumex Britannica, L.

435. Polygonum lapathifolium. L.

436. P. Hydropiper, L.

437. P. acre, HBK.

438. Betula pumila, L.

439. Spiranthes cernua, Richard.

440. Habenaria tridentata. Hook.

441. H. lacera, R. Br.

442. H. psycodes, Gray.

443. Aletris farinosa. L. .

444. Sisyrinchium angustifolium, Mill.

445. Lilium superbum, L.

446. Xyris flexuosa, Muhl.

447. Juncus pelocarpus, B. Meyer.

448. J. scirpoides. Lam

449. J. nodosus, L.

450. Cyperus diandrus, Torr.

451. Eleocharis palustris, R. Br.

452. E. intermedia, Schultes.

453. Fimbristylis capillaris, Gray. Also oak woods.

454. Scirpus Smithii. Gray, Rare.

455. S. atrovirens, Muhl.

456. Eriophorum cyperinum, L.

457. Hemicarpha subsquarrosa, Nees. Rare.

458. Rhynchospora symosa, Nutt. Rare.

459. R. alba, Vahl. Rare.

460. R. glomerata, Vahl.

461. Scleria triglomerata, Michx. Rare.

462. Carex monile, Tuck.

463. C. Pseudo-Cyperus Americana, Hochst.

464. C. filiformis latifolia, Boeckl.

465. C. trichocarpa, Muhl.

466. C. fusca. All.

467. C. conoidea, Schk.

468. C. teretiuscula, Good.

469. C. vulpinoldea, Michx.

470. C. gynocrates Worms. Very rare.

471. C. ecbinata microstachys. Boeckl.

472. C. scoparia, Scl^k.

473. Spartina cynnsunoides, Willd.

474. Hierochloe boreqlis, R. & S.

475. Muhlenbertria Mexicana. Trin.

476. Agrostis alba, L.

477. A. alba vul^ariq. Thurb. Common in meadow.s.

478. Calamagrostis Canadensis. Beauv. Very abundant.

156 MICHIGAN ACADEMY OP SCIENCE.

479. C. confinis, Nuti. Common.

480. Glyceria Canaden.sis. Trin.

481. G. grandis, Wats.

482. Osmunda Claytoiiiana, L.

C. Borders of streams, ponds and lakes.

483. Anemone Pennsylvanica, L.

484. Ranunculus septentrionalis, Poir.

485. Cardamine rhomboidea, DC.

486. C. rhomboidea purpurea, Torr

487. C. pratensis. L.

488. C. Pennsylvanica, Aluhl.
48&. Nasturtium palustre, DC.

490. Elodes campanulata, Pursh.

491. Penthorum sedoides, L.

492. Proserpinaca palustris. L.

493. Ludwigia palustris. Ell. l.imose.

494. Hydrocotyle umbellata, L. Limose and aquatic.

495. Gnaphalium uliginosum, L. Dried puddles.

496. Lobelia Kalmii, L. Amphibious.

497. Polygonum amphibium, L. Amphibious.

498. P. hydropiperoides, Michx.

499. Sali.\ nigra. Marsh. Borders of streams.

500. S. amygdaloides. And.

501. S. lucida, Muhl.

502. S. longifolia, Muhi.

503. S. petiolaris gracilis, Auders.

504. Populus monilifera, Ait.

505. Pontederia cordata, 1j. Mostly in shallow water.

506. Alisma Plantaga, L. Amphibious,

507. Sagittaria variabilis, Engelm. Amphibious.

508. Sagittaria variabilis angustifolia, Engelm.

509. S. heterophylla, Pursh. Limose and aquatic.

510. S. heterophylla rigida, Engelm.

511. S. heterophylla angustifolia. Engelm.

512. Cyperus diandrus castaneus, Torr.

513. Eleocharis ovata, R. Br.

514. E. tenuis, Schultes.

515. E. acicularis, R. Br. Beds of dry pools in autumn.

516. Scirpus pungens, Vahl. Shallow water.

517. S. iacustrls, L. Shallow water in lakes.

518. S. debilis, Pursh. Muddy shores of lakes.

519. Care.x straminea, Willd.

520. C. straminea mirabilis. Tuck.

521. Leersia oryzoides, Swartz. In streams.

522. Zizania aquatica, L. In streams.

523. Alopecurus geniculatus aristulatus, Torr.

524. Glyceria fluitaus, R. Br. Shallow water.

525. Equisetum sylvaticum, J.,.

526. E. limosum, L.

527. Marchantia polymorpha, L.

D. Aquatics.

528. Brasenia peltata, Pursh. Lake Minnewaukon.

529. Nympha?a reniformis, DC. Ponds and lakes.

530. Nuphar advena, Ait. f.

531. Myriophyllum verticillatum, L. Lake Minnewaukon.

532. Utricularia vulgaris, L. Ditches, ponds and lakes.

533. U. gibba, L. Lake Minnewaukon.

534. Ceratophyllum demersum. L. Lake Minnewaukon.

535. Spirodela polyrrhlza, Schleid.

536. Potamogeton natans, L. Ponds.

537. P. hybridus, Michx.

538. P. fluitans. Roth.

DANIELS ON FLORA OF STURGIS, MlCHI(;iAN. 157

53i>. P. amplifolius, Tuck.

540. P. heterophyllus. Sehreb.

541. P. lueens, ]^.

542. P. Hillii, Morong. Ditches and streams.

543. P.pusillus, 1...

544. Riccia tluitans, L.

545. R. natans, J>. Also terrestrial by drying up of water.

IV. — Parasites and .saprophytes.

54il. Monotropa uniflora, L.

547. Cuscuta Gronovii, Willd.

548. Aphyllon uniHorTim, Gray.

V. — Anthropophytes.
A. Weeds.

54b. Chclidonium uiajus, L,. Hedges, rare.

550. Nasturtium Armoracia, Fries.

551. Sisymbrium officinale, Scop.

552. Brassica nigra, Koch.

553. Capsella Bursa-pastoris, Moench.

554. Lepidium intermedium, Gray.

555. Saponaria officinalis, L. Roadsides.

556. Silene antirrhina. L. Also wild open places.

557. S. noctittora, J./.

558. Lychnis Githago. Laui.

559. Stellaria media, Smith.

560. Cerastium vulgatum, L.

561. Portulaca oleracea, L.

562. Hypericum ])erforatum, L.

563. Malva rotundifolia. Gaert.

564. Abutilon Avicennae, Gaert.

565. Oxalis corniculata stricta, Sav. Also woods, etc.

566. Trifolium arvense, L.

567. Melilotus alba. Lam.

568. Medicago lupulina, L.

569. Potentilla argentea, L.

570. Oenothera biennis, L. Also wild open places.

571. Echinocystis lobata, T. & G.

572. Mollugo verllcillata, L.

573. Dipsacus sylvestris, Mill.

574. Vernonia i'asciculata, Michx. Also low ground.

575. Erigeron Canadensis, L.

576. E. annuus, Pers.

577. E. slrigosus, Muhl.

578. Ambrosia artemisia^folia, i>.

579. Xanlhium Canadense. Mill.

580. Antherais Cotula, DC.

581. Achillea Millefolium, L.

582. Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum, L. Rare.

583. Tanacetum vulgare. L. Roadsides.

584. Arctium Lappa. L.

585. Cniciis lanceolatus, Hoffm.

586. C. arvensis, Hoffm.

587. Tragopogon pratensis, L.

588. Taraxacum officinale, Weber.

589. Lactuca Scariola, L.

590. Sonehus oleraceous, L.

591. S. asper. Vill.

592. Apbeynum androsa^mifolium. L.

593. Asclepias Cornuti. Decaisne.

594. Cynoglossum officinale. J...

595. Myosotis verna. Nutt.

596. T>ithospprmum arvense. L.

158 MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCK.

597. Solanum Dulcamara, L. Also swamps.

598. S. nigrum, L. Everywhere.

599. Physalis Virginana, Mill.

600. P. lanceolata, Michx.

601. Verbascum Thapsus. L.

602. V. P>lattaria, L.

603. Linaria vulgaris, Mill.

604. Veronica serpyllifolia, L.

605. V. peregrina, L.

606. V. arveusis. L.

607. Verbena urticaefolia, I^.

608. V. bracteosa, Michx.

609. Nepeta Cataria, L.

610. N. Glechoma, Benth. Yards.

611. Leonurus Cardiaca, L.

612. Plantago major, L.

613. P. lanceolata, L.

614. Amarantus retroflexus, L.

615. A albus, L.

616. A. blitoides, Wats.

617. Chenopodium album, Iv.

618. C. hybridum. L.

619. C. capitatum. Wats. Very rare.

620. C. ambrosioides anthelminticum, Gray. Coal, ashes, etc.

621. Atriplex patulum littorale, Gray. Streets.

622. Phytolacca decandra, L. Also open woods.

623. Rumex crispus, L

624. R. obtusifolius discolor. Wall.

625. R. Acetosella, L.

626. Polygonum aviculare, L.

627. P. erectum, L.

628. P. Persicaria, L.

629. P. Convolvulus, L.

630. Euphorbia maculata, I..

631. E. Presli), Guss.

632. Cannabis sativa, L.

633. Urtica dioica, L.

634. Panicum sanguinale, L.

635. P. capillare, L..

636. P. proliferum, Lam. Streets.

637. P. Crus-galli, L.

638. Setaria glauca, Beauv.

639. S. viridis, Beauv.

640. Cenchrus tribuloides, L. Sandy roadsides.

641. Sporobolus vaginaeflorus, Vasey. Paths along roadsides.

642. Eragrostis major. Hast.

643. E. pilosa, Beauv.

644. E. capillaris, Nees.

645. Bromus secalinus, L.

646. Agropyron repens, Beauv.

B. Forage plants.

647. Trifolium pratense, L.

648. T. repens, L.

649. T. hybridum, L.

650. Medicago sativa, L.

651. Setaria Italica. Kunth.

652. Phleum pratense. L.

653. Dactylis glomerata, I.,.

654. Poa annua, L.

655. P. oompressa, L

656. P. pratensis, L.

657. Ix)lium perfenne. I- Lawns.

DANIELS ON FLORA OP STURGIS, MICHIGAN. 159

C. Escapes.

658. Bmasica canipestris, L.

659. Allanthus glaudulosus, Dest. Spontaneous in yards.

660. Malva moschata, L. Roadsides.

661. M. Alcea, L. Railroad track, rare.

662. Sedum Telephium, L. Roadsides.

663. Daucus Carota, L.

664. Pastinaca sativa, L.

665. Tanacetum Balsamita, L. Roadsides.

666. Catalpa speciosa, Warder. Self-sown along roadsides.

667. Fagopyrum esculentum, Moench.

668. Euphorbia Cyparissias, L.

669. Populus balsamifera candicans, Gray.

670. Asparagus officinalis. L.

Notes.

34. Since I then did not have access to the descriptions of the species into
which Hooker's plant has been broken up, and did not preserve material enough
to justify any such separation now, the old name is here allowed to stand.

106. The specimen of the grape I have so called, was gathered in fruit, Sept. 30,
1898, in a fence-row. It differs from all specimens of Vitis riparia, Mx., that I have
seen, in its narrower acute to acutish sinus. The leaves are long acuminate,
slightly 3-lobed, and coarsely toothed. Seeds large with distinct rhaphe. Berries
blue-black with bloom — sour, in this respect like V riparia, Mx.; but the color
of the fruit is no indubitable criterion. It is not uncommon to find true V. riparia,
Mx. with jet black fruit, and, as is well known, the flavor of these species become
sourer as they are found farther from the coast. I have carefully measured the
sinuses of all specimens that I have, with the following result: Specimen of V.
riparia, Mx., McCords, Mich., Aug. 6, 1899, bottoms of Thornapple river, outer
width of sinus 1V4-1% inches; inner width ^-114 in.; specimen of V. riparia, Mx.,
Manistee, Mich., Jime, 1900, in flower (leaves immature), banks of Lake Michigan,
outer width %-lVi in; inner width V2-% in.; specimen of V. riparia, Mx., Ionia,
Mich., May 1896, in flower (leaves immature), thicket, outer width 1-1 1^ in.; inner
width y2 in.; specimen of V. cordifolia, Mx., Sturgis, Mich., Sept. 30, 1898, fence-
row, outer width V^-% in.; inner width 1-16-% in. The Ionia specimen has a less
rounded sinus than the others mentioned of V. riparia. Mx., and was pronounced
V. cordifolia, Mx. at Harvard.

130. This rose, gathered on a lake border, Sept. 1898, has stout curved spines
and, ver/ numerous slender prickles; stipules narrow, dilated at summit; flower
solitary; leaflets seven, sharply serrate. It resembles Rosa nitida, Willd. very
much, but its spines are curved instead of straight, in which respect it differs
also from R. humilis, Marsh. These three species are very closely related, and
an examination of a very large number of specimens would be necessary to prove
that the distinction based on the spines will in all cases hold good.

409. A form of this without rays was found, a hybrid apparently with Bidens
frondosa, L.

160 MICHIGAN ACADEMY OP SCIENCE,

DOUGLASS HOUGHTON.

"He loved the study of the operations oi" nature in thf- midst of b^r wildest
scenes." — Bela Hubbard.

As a niai). Dr. Houghton is described by his Irieud and biographer.
Alvah Bradish, as slightly below the medium height, his head was large
and well developed, his hands and feet small and delicately foiined, his
nose prominent, his eyes blue tending toward hazel, and brighi and merry
and expressed his feelings without disguise. His temperament was warm
and nervous, his movements quick and earnest. His voice rang with the
melody of unaffected enjoyment, or the gayety of social and contiding
intimacy. His sensibilities were feminine in delicacy. He saw the im-
y>ortance of making friends of political leaders, and had a faculty of
inspii-ing others with his enthusiasm, and of awakening a profound inter-
est in his pui'suits. He was young, ardent and generous to a fault. He
did not confine himself exclusively to the study of scicuc*', but t'ugaged
in business enterprises, and as is shown by his being laayor of Detroit,
took a deep interest and exerted a directing infiuenct' in affairs of state.
l>eing at the same time quite above and outside of i)oliTical parties. These
and many more broad, generous, and noble qualities may be found
recorded in the biographies of the subject of this sketcli. Hie most eminent
of the y)ioneers of science in Michigan.

The leading events in the short but useful life of Dr. Houglilon may be
briefly summarized in a few paragraphs. He was i»oru at Tioy, New
York, on September 21. 1800 ; passed the greater part of his boyhood at
Fredonia in the same state; studied at the Rensselaer high school under
Amos Eaton, and was graduated from that institution in October. 1829.
but remained there as an assistant instructor and assistant professor for
about one year. He delivered a course of public lectures on geology and
kindred sciences in Detroit during the winter of IS.'iO-Hl. Having studied
medicine, he was admitted to pi-actice by the .Medical Society of Chautau-
qua <-ounty. New York, in the spring of ISol. At tliis perio<l lie was
appointed physician and botanist on an expedition to the sources of the
Mississippi under the leadershij> of the distinguished explorer Henry R.
Schoolcraft. His experiences on this expedition beyond the frontier as
then known. s<MMns to hav(^ intensitied an inherent lo\c foi- the cliarnis of
nature an<l led him later to assume 'leadership in still more extended
explorations and discoveries. His report on the botany of tlu' i-egion
visited \\ith Schoolcraft, as is stated by I'ela Hubbard, shows not only
an exhaustive a(H|uaintance with the bianch of science with which it
deals, but did much to extend the world's knowledge of the tlora of the
Northwest, and to establish his own reputation as a scientific observer.
From 1832 to 1837. he practiced as a jihysician and surgeon in Detroit,
and during that period i-endered highly iinporlaul service at a time when
the city was stricken with cholera. In F'ebruary 1837„ he was ajq»ointe(l
State Geologist of Michigan, and thence forward to the day of his death,
devoted the greater y)art of his time and almost his entiiv energy to the
study of the geology of his adojtted State. In ls:{S lie was app<iinted

DR. DOUGLASS HOUGHTON.

DOUGLASS HOUGHTON. IGl

professor of geology, niineralog.v and cluMnistrv in the University of Miclii-
gan. a position wliieli he retained until the close of his busy career. In
1833, he was married to Miss Stevens of Fredonia, New York, who,
together with two children survived to mourn his death, which occurred
on the night of October 13, 1845. Ilis death was tragic; while prosecuting
his arduous and frequently hazardous explorations on Lake Superior, in
an open boat, he was overtaken by a severe snow storm, his boat was cap-
sized near the mouth of Eagle river, and he, with one companion, was
drowned. His body was recovered the following spring and buried in
Detroit.

"Thus, at the early age of thirty-six years, was lost to his state and science one
who, without eulogy, may be ranked among the most extraordinary men of our
country; whether we view him as the humble student of nature, attracting all
hearts to science; the friendly and skillful physician, periling his life to save that
of others; the energetic and independent public man, untiring in his energy and
sacrificing his private means in the public cause; or the university instructor of
youth and age, the source of as frequent and general reference as the pages of a
cyclopedia." — Bela Hubbard.

The esteem with which Dr. Houghton was held by those who had the
privilege of knowing him personally, both on account of his many attrac-
tions as a man and his wide scientitic attainments, is suggested by
the following from the many similar quotations that might be made.

"Simple as a child, and unassuming as he was scholarly, he wrote his name on
the history of his state, there to remain forever." — Lyman D. Norris.

"I believe we never had a citizen who did more for the future of the state than
Dr. Douglass Houghton." — James V. Camphell.

"The honesty, skill and enthusiasm with which this field of work [the explora-
tion of Michigan] was executed, resulted in the collection of a large amount of
geological data, which on the completion of the survey would have left little to be
done save the final report with which the master mind should classify, group and
harmonize these facts and thereby develop nature's laws from the mass of material
collected." — T. B. Brooks.

"Dr. Houghton's report, published in 1841, furnished the world with the first
definite information relating to the occurrence of native copper in place on Lake
Superior, and the mining interests now rapidly growing up in that region have
been to a great extent created by the attention he directed to it." — Alexander
Winchell.

The memory of Douglass Houghton has its most noble monument in his
own publfcations, although these, on account of his death before his field
notes could be systematically studied, are few in number; but in addition,
his countrymen have acknowledged his services on the map of Michigan
by a county, a lake and a city named in his honor. A memorial window
dedicated to him, was placed in St. Paul's church, Marquette, in
1887, as a tribute to his memory from one who valued his work
but did not know the man. The Douglass school in Detroit is named for
him. A granite shaft erected by his wife, marks his last resting place in
Elmwood cemetery ; and his name with an appropriate epitaph, is en-
scribed on a marble column in the campus of the University of Michigan.
A poi'trait, painted by Alvah Bradish, has been placed in the capitol at
Lansing.

Douglass Houghton's principal publications relate to his work as State

Geologist of Michigan, and are comprised mainly in seven annual reports.

A final report I believe was never begun. Some of his explorations and

surveys in Michigan were conducted under the auspices of the U. S. Land

21

162 MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

Oflfice, and the results appeared in part in certain maps issued by that
office, and in other ways. A list of his writings, published both by the
State of Michigan and by the federal government, is contained in Vol, VII
of the reports of the Geological Survey of ^lichigan.

The principal memoirs of Dr. Houghton, and the ones from which this
imperfect sketch has been prepared are as follows: «»

"Memoirs of Douglass Houghton, first State Geologist of Michigan, by Alvah
Bradish. page i-xii. 1-302. Detroit, 1889. The frontispiece of this volume is a
photographic reproduction of its author's portrait of the subject of the memoir.
In the appendix of the volume selections from the letters of Dr. Houghton are
presented, and also a very full account of his published reports on the geology of
Michigan.

"A Memoir of Dr. Douglass Houghton, late State Geologist, and Professor of
Geology and Chemistry in the University of Michigan [by Bela Hubbard], in The
American Journal of Science and Arts, Vol. V. 2nd series, 1848, pp. 217-227.

"Douglass Houghton" by Alexander Winchell, in The American Geologist, Vol. IV,
1889, pp. 129-139, with portrait.

"The soldier dies honored who falls in battle. He too, perished on the field of
his fame — a field whose victories are bloodless, and in whose fruits, untainted by
misery and crime, the whole human family may rejoice." — Bda Hubbard.

I. C. R.

EELA HUBBARD. 3t)3

BELa HIBIJAHI).

Tlie subject of this sketch einolled his n;niie ainoiiji; Michigan's votaries
of science, by his work as assistant geolooist on the (jeological Survey of
his adopted State, and by writing- a thorouglily reliable and most attrac-
tive book, entitled "Memorials of Half a Century."

The history of the life of Bela Hubbard, when fully and sympathetically
written, will contain at least five important chapters, which may ai)pro-
priately bear the captions : The man, his private life, affections and
friendships; the student of nature, his explorations and observations;
the man of business, his defeats and successes; the student of historj^ his
researches and aid to fellow students; the citizen, his influence on the
State's aid to science. Only the barest outline, however, of the several
ways in which his long and useful life should be described and commemo-
rated, can be presented at this time.

Bela Hubbard was born at Hamilton, New York, April 23, 1814, and
died in Detroit, Michigan, June 13, 1890. He was the son of Thomas H,
and Phebe Hubbard, and passed his boyhood days at their home in Hamil-
ton, He was graduated from Hamilton college in 1834, removed to
Detroit the following year, and soon after became connected with the
Geological Survey of Michigan. Later he entered his brother Henry's
law office and was admitted to the bar in 1842. The greater part of his
life was passed in Detroit, and he became thoroughly identified with the
life and development of that city.

As the writer of this sketch has been informed by Mr. C. M. Burton,
who was a friend and com])anion of Bela Hubbard during his mature
years, and to whom the reader is indebted for nearly all the facts here pre-
sented, he was below the medium height, slightly built, not very robust,
light complexioned, with blue-grey eyes and brown hair; and possessed
a quiet temperament and was not easily excited. As a friend, com-
panion, and fellow student in historical and other researches, he was
a kindly and lovable man. He was married in 184G, to Sarah E.,
daughter of Rev. John A. and Sarah (Harvey) Baughman, in 1848. The
literary tastes and attainments of his wife, are indicated by a book from
her pen, entitled. "The hidden sin," published in London, and repub-
lished by Harper Brothers, in 1866. Several children were born to Mr.
and Mrs. Hubbard, of whom two daughters and one son still live.

Soon after removing to Detroit, Bela Hubbard became acquainted
with Douglas Houghton, then State Geologist of Michigan, and in 1837,
was appointed Assistant Geologist on the State Geological Survey, a
position which he held until 1841. He accompanied Douglass Houghton
on an important expedition to the southern shore of Lake Superior, in
1840, an account of which is given in his "Memorials of half a century."
It is this book more than anything else that will preserve the memory of
its author. It is his most fitting and most enduring monument and
entitles the name of Bela Hubbard to a place on the short list of American
authors who may be justly termed "nature writers."

The book just referred to covers a wide field, as for example, the

164 MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

scenery of the Great Lakes, experiences of explorers, historical and
antiquarian sketches, studies of plants and animals, critical discussions
of climatology, essays on the seasons, "etc. Throughout all of its many
chapters is seen the ability of its writer to observe critically, generalize
judiciously and record truthfully and graphically. In its pages, more
faithfully perhaps than a stranger would infer from its title, are the
painstaking studies of half a centur}' epitomized.

One of the most charming features of Bela Hubbard's writings is the
reflection from them of his strong love of nature. To justify this claim
permit me to transcribe three independent passages from his "Memorials,"
descriptive of our northland in spring, in summer, and in autumn :

"And now, while the mists are yet in the valley and on the river, awakes the nup-
tial chorus of the birds. And what a concert it is! As if each little musician had
aroused to a fresh sense of his happiness, and was striving to outdo all others in
the expression of it. The whole air is vocal. The strains mingle in a confused med-
ley, yet in perfect concord. Not one throat that ever poured a note is silent now.
One after another takes up the strain, ever higher and higher, nearer and nearer,
until the very heaven resounds, and 'Earth rolls the raptuous hosanna round.' If
you would hear this sweet concert delay not until the sun is up, and not until the
summer. It is the birds' epithalamium. Its set time is the dawn in spring."

"What a month of months is our Northern June! The trees lately so bare,
or showing only the delicate tints of spring, have now perfected their foliage, and
are fresh and lustrous as young brides adorned for their husbands. The ever-
greens are illuminating their sombre mourning suits with an embroidery of a new
and lighter growth, that, like half-tints in a widows weeds, betoken relief from the
thraldom of sorrow, while they add enhanced beauty. How richly green the soft
carpet that covers the ground! What land can compare with ours, at this season.
for diversity of leaf and tint, and depth of color? Where is the tropical landscape
that, with all its luxuriance, can compete with it, or that can compensate by its
tangle and variety for the absence of turf? Trees and grass make a paradise of any
Northern home, nor need we envy those sun-burned lands where that chief element
.of beauty — the greensward — is wanting."

'•'Yet the Indian summer is no myth. It often breaks upon us from the very midst
of storm, frost and snow, true to the tradition, that there must first be a 'squaw
winter' before we can have an "Indian summer.' At once the icy blasts are locked
securely in their northern caves, the snow melts and the earth dries under a genial
sun.shine. The calm, still atmosphere is filled with a smoky haze, which hangs
like a veil over the landscape. Day after day succeeds of most delicious, dreamy
softness; not enervating like the heats of summer, but exhilarating to soul and
body. For the rains and the frost have purified the atmosphere, renderng it elastic
and bracing. The sun's rays have lost their power to oppress, and bring only en-
joyment. How softly his beams fall on all surrounding objects — the gold without
the glitter. What a delicious atmosphere; we can almost fly in it!

' how soft the blue.

That throws its mantle o'er the lengthening scene.'

Neither Eastern climes nor rural England can produce anything to compare with
this balmy sunshine and this glorified landscape, shrouded in the hazy canopy of
Indian summer!"

In addition to the popular book from which the above quotations have
been taken, Bela Hubbard, jointly with \V. A. Burt, wrote a small book
on the geography, topography and geology of the south shore of Lake
Superior, published in 1846. Among his minor writings are included
an essay on the "Early colonization of Detroit," published by the State
Pioneer Society; and a discussion of the "Clinuito of Detroit,"' printed
in the American ^Medical Observer.

Soon after Bela Hubbard removed to Detroit, his father presented him

BELA HUBBARD, LL D.

BELA HUBBARD. 16&

•

with a farm, situated about two miles from tlie west limit of the city.
In later years owing to the growth of Detroit, this farm became included!
within her boundary, and greatly increased in value. A handsome boule-
vard which now passes through this tract bears its former owner's name.
The demands of his property interests led Bela Hubbard to open a real
estate office and deal in landed property. His business enterprises, al-
though attended by certain embarrassments, were on the whole highly
successful and he became a man of means as well as of municipal and
social influence. His deep interest in the welfare of Michigan is shown
by the fact that he was one of the organizers of the State Agricultural
Society in 1849, and continued to be a member of that organization for
many years. He was instrumental in obtaining the first grant from the
Legislature for establishing the now flourishing State Agricultural Col-
lege at Lansing. He was a member of the Young Men's Society of De-
troit, and at one time (1845) its president. His interest in science is
shown by the fact that he was one of the organizers of the American
Association of Geologists and Naturalists, the fore-runner of the present
American Association for the Advancement of Science.

Although Bela Hubbard is justly claimed by the scientific men of Mich-
igan, as one of their number, his talent is recognized by our literary and
historical brethren, as well. He was an enthusiastic student of the early
history of Michigan, and an admirer of Pere Marquette, whose trails he
crossed during his expeditions to Lake Superior, and from whose example
he seemingly acquired a longing for the free, adventurous life of the ex-
plorer. His interest in the history of the French occupation of the
Great Lakes region led him to search in person as well as assist others
engaged in a similar task, among the archives of Paris, for original data
in that connection. As a monument to his tastes for history, although no
such thought can be ascribed to him, as well as to the pioneers who un-
folded the wonders of the New World, he had executed and presented to
the citizens of Detroit, the statues of Cadillac, La Salle, Mar-
quette and Richard, which decorate the four corners of their City Hall.
In heartfelt recognition of his scholarly attainments, the degree of LL. D.^
was conferred upon him by his Alma Mater, in 1893.

I. C. R.

166 MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

MAGNIOTIC PHENOMENA AROUND DEEP BORINGS.

BY A. C. LAXE, STATE GEOLOGIST.

•

In an early paper by Prof. Alexander Winchell he calls attention to
magnetic phenomena around certain springs in the State, but without
specifying })recisely what these phenomena were. It is also noteworthy
that a large number of the springs or rather artesian wells, that have
been exploited as mineral waters, have "magnetic" in their name* or like
the St. Louis s]»ring make reference in their circulars to their magnetic
powers as of great value. In the course of my studies on the water
supply of Michigan, and in the examination of other borings of various
kinds, which is part of my regular business, it became a matter of some
interest to know just what these magnetic phenomena were. So far as I
could find out they were of two kinds. All the wells in question are
drilled wells in iron casing, and even when this casing was said to be
wrought or soft iron it had a considerable attraction. It would for in-
stance hold out nails, and the pull upon a wrench could very
readily be felt. Sometimes too, it was noticed that the blade of a
knife immersed in the water also became magnetic. Of this last state-
ment I may remark that while it is very easy for knife blades to have
become magnetic without the owner's knowledge yet there is no reason
to doubt that in some cases knife blades did really become magnetic.
However, I do not know of any case where the knife blade became magnetic
except as it was held in the water as it flowed from the casing, and hence
close to the latter. Now any knife blade being steel if it is held close to a
magnet will soon become permanently magnetized itself, so that the two
phenomena reduce themselves to one, mainly the magnetism of the casing.
As to any well defined magnetic effects of the waters of a medical nature
I am not qualified to judge, not being a physician, nor have I had them
stated to me in any tangible state. Now in regard to the casing, we must
remember that the earth as a whole is a magnet and electro-magnetic cur-
rents are continually flowing in it, and that any iron rod or tube lying^
in a magnetic field and cutting the lines of force will itself be magnetized,
just as a soft iron nail touching or close to a magnet will itself become
attractive and be able to draw a smaller nail. Applying this to the case
of these deep wells we have continuous lines of iron pipes, of wrought
iron or steel (and sometimes pipe that is sold for wrought iron is really
steel), which may vai-y in length from a hundred feet to two or three
thousand or more and it is not surprising Ihat they sliould be magnetic
as they cut a good many lines of force of the great earth magnet. These
lines are rei)rest^nted in a horizontal direction by the compass and in a
vertical i)lane by the dip needle. If this explanation of the magnetism
is correct, then all strings of casing should i)rove to be more or less
magnetic. Such indeed I have found to be the case very often to the
considerable surprise of the owners thereof, though well drillers tell me

* Such iis Midland Magnetic. Grand Riipids Magnetic, Riverside Matrneiic at Detroit, and Magnetic
Springs at Leslie, Lansing, Fruitport and Huboardsion, the analyses of which are given in Water
Supply Paper No. 31 of the U. S Geolosjical Survey.

LANE ON MAGNETIC. PHENOMENA. 167

that they know this to be the rule. Tliis ii)aj2;netic force is soinetimes
very considerable. It will often liohl out the larj^est size of spike, and
I believe in the case of the well over tive thousand feet deep, tested by
Prof. William ITallock of Columbia Tnivi'sity. it could liold a wrench. I
have found that in lowering; a thermometer down these wells tlie steel tape
clung to the sides so that it made a material ditlerence in the energy re-
quired to handle it. It was just about as much as a man could do to
start 2,(>0() feet of steel tape from the Grayling well, although the weight
of the tape itself would not be over 25 ])ounds. Again in measuring the
depth of a well recently sunk at Cheboygan, 2,700 feet deep or more, Mr.
Rust the driller, informed me that the magnetic drag on the tape was
such that it was also impossible to tell when the 20 pound weight was at
the bottom. At the same time it seems to me that the magnetism is not
directly proportional to the depth of the hole alone, although the larger
and deeper holes are of course in a general way more magnetic, and I
should think there might be interesting op])ortunity for some student of
geophysics to make some magnetic observations of considerable interest.
The university of Michigan has for instance put down recently a well
dome 1,300 feet deej), which at one time, if not at present, was cased over
a thousand feet. It would seem that here might be a good chance for
careful experiment. I should be very glad to have any suggestions from
students of physics as to how observations upon these phenomena could
be made more definite and instructive. Before closing I would like to
mention another phenomenon though it does not occur in a deep boring
but in a deep shaft. The Tamarack mine has recently sunk a shaft (No.
5), which goes vertically downward some 4,600 feet before it encounters
the lode which the mine is working. In preparing to connect this with the
old workings of the mine two plumb bobs or pendulums were let down the
shaft 4,250 feet, and whereas they were 17.58, or at another time 16.3o,
feet apart at the top, they were found to be 17.65 respectively 10.42 feet
apart at the bottom. In No. 2 shaft the divergence was from 12.0 feet at
the top to 12.7 feet at the bottom. This divergence was unexpected, but
Prof. W. Hallock of Columbia who has investigated the matter, concludes
that it is a phenomenon of a character similar to those we have described
that the long wires in the magnetic field of the earth were magnetized, so>
that the similar poles repelled each other as they always do. He adds,
*'I may say that, as far as the magnetizing inttuence of the earth upon
the casings is concerned, it would matter but little whether the pipes were
really wrought iron or steel, because, inasmuch as they remain in the
magnetic field, they would of course remain magnetized, even if they
were soft wrought iron.

''A factor which probably iuHuenccs the strength of the magnetism of
these casings is the number of strings that may be put into any i)articular
well. In the well at Wheeling there were, I believe four strings, the
longest one being something over 1.500 feet. In that well it proved im-
possible to sink a steel tape through the casing, even with a 50 pound
weight attached to the lower end of it. In my temj>erature observations
a steel wire was used which of course adhered to the walls of the well but
little."

Farther investigation at the Tamarack Mine l»y President McXair
showed that the ]»henomenon there was mainly due l<» the draft of air.

1<J8 MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

A REMAKKABLE DUST SHOWER.

BY C. D. MCLOUTH.

On January 27 of the present year (1902) a shower of dust fell over a
wide area in Western Michigan. The dust was mingled with snow and
the mixture was commonly mentioned as yellow snow. The fall of the
dust continued during a considerable part of the afternoon, — three to-
seven hours according to observers at different stations.

The fall occurred during the subsidence of the anticyclone following a
storm of great energy that crossed the continent during several days pre-
ceding. The storm moved from northern California southeastward ta
Kansas, thence curving northeastward to Lake Superior. During and
following this storm strong winds were prevalent over a wide region that
came under its influence, although the winds were not exceptionally high.
On the date of the dust fall and the preceding day the winds over the lakes
and Mississippi valley were westerly.

Along the coast the dust is known to have fallen as far south as Hol-
land and at Hart northward, indicating an extreme width of at least sixty
miles. It is known to have extended inland to Sparta, about thirty miles
from the lake shore. The territory bounded by a line slightly outlying
these points is not less than 1,600 square miles in area. It appears that
the precipitation was somewhat variable in quantity at different places
and there are some indications that the amount was greater twenty to
thirty miles inland than at Muskegon.

Naturally there were many speculations as to the real nature of the
phenomenon. The dust was variously mentioned in public print as (1)
local surface material, especially from the dunes along Lake Michigan^
(2) Volcanic dust; (3) Meteoric matter; (4) Earthy material raised from
the surface beyond the lake. The first supposition was easily disproved
by microscopical measurements of the grains, which showed its extreme
fineness as compared with local soil particles. Moreover, the fall was
observed on Lake Michigan windward from the land. The presence of con-
siderable organic matter showed that it could not have come from a
volcano or from outer space. Dr. A. C. Lane, State Geologist, pronounced
the dust identical with the loess soil of the Mississippi and Missouri river
valleys. Mr. W. A. Orton of the National Bureau of Plant Industry called
it fine silt. Thus the problem was narrowed down to finding the exact
source of the material and how it could have been raised and transported
so great a distance under conditions that did not seem exceptional.

Some attempts were made at collecting data from which an approximate
estimate of the total deposit could be formed. Snow containing the dust
was taken from measured spaces and the dry residue weighed with re-
sults as follows :

McLOUTH ON DUST SHOWER.

16»

Number.

Place of
collection.

Collector.

Area in
square feet.

Dry weight
in grams.

Weight

per square

foot.

1

Muskegon

Ravenna

n D. McLouth

1
1
4

1.855
3.464
3.417

1.855g

2

C. E. Alberts

3.464g
.854g

3

Muskegon

U. D. McLouih

Average pe

r square foot

2.058g

On the basis of the average found the precipitation on a square mile
would be about six and one-third tons; on the total area as indicated
above the amount would be about ten thousand tons.

I also weighed two residues which, though not affording accurate data,,
are significant.

Mr. G. A. Rumsey, of Slocum, about twenty miles due east from Mus-
kegon, filled a common drinking glass with the snow and obtained there-
from a dry residue that weighed 0.29 grams.

Ray Dawes, a pupil in Muskegon high school, collected a large panful-
of the snoAV found clinging to trunks of standing trees on the windward
side. This melted to three quarts of water and yielded sixty-five grams,,
approximate weight.

The following notes are quoted from some of the correspondents tc
whom samples and inquiries were sent.

C. E. Alberts* Ravenna. — "The dust almost spoiled the sleighing."

L. L. Coates, Sparta. — ''There are several pounds of it (the dust) Id
my cistern."

C. E. Ruthruff, Montague. — ''That deposited here was coarser than the-
sample you sent, and had a decidedly red color." (Statement not verified
by a specimen).

Vernon G. Mayo, Newaygo. — "On an inclined walk usually ashed to
prevent slipping, it was abundantly deposited, so no ashes were needed.'^

D. E. Austin, Blue Lake Township, near Whitehall — "The sand or dust
storm was of seven or eight hours duration. * * * The dust coming in
swirls was deposited at right angles to the course of the storm, in some-
places scarcely a trace, then again sufficient to check the motion of a
sleigh. * * * In breaks of the snow storm the dust would appear like
great yellow smoke columns above the level of the main storm clouds."

In physical form the dried material resembles flour. The particles,,
which are generally angular and irregular, range in diameter from .00&
to .00005 of an inch, few grains reaching the larger dimension. Its^
color is a deep shade of yellow-orange. It sinks readily in water and i»
semi-pasty when wet.

In composition the material is chiefly silica. About five per cent, ac-
cording to Mr. Orton, is organic matter, such as plant hairs, pieces of
wood fiber, desmids, etc.

As is well known, dust storms are common in many parts of the world.
In Michigan they seem to be rare but are not unknown. Mr. L. L,
22

170

MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

Coates informs me, on authority of Mr. George H. Porter, of Sparta^
that a similar storm occurred at that place in 1873. On February 18,
1896. ]\Ir. Herman P. Thomas of Cassopolis witnessed a dustfall there.
He weighed a collection from a measured space from which he computed
245 pounds per acre, a quantity greatly exceeding that indicated by
measurements in the recent instance.

The Monthly AVeather Review of January, 1895, contains a detailed
account of a dust storm in parts of Indiana and Kentucky with results
of careful analyses of numerous sami)les of the material.

In all these instances the material seems to have been nearly or quite
identical with that of the recent storm.

\y^<^\>i.

1. A map showing approxlniatelv the extent of the dust shower in western Michigan,.

January 27, 1902.
Places at which the dust is Itnown to have fallen are marked with x.
Extent from north to south along the lake shoi-e about GO miles.
Greatest extent eastward from shore about oO miles.

Average amount of dustfall per square foot based on three measurements 2.058 grams.
Estimated amount of dust deposited on one scpiare mile, ii.'.i'-i tons.
Amount computed for area of 1 ,('.0() s(iuare miles, about ]<),000 tons.

In attempting to explain the raising and transporting for so great a
distance of this mass of soil all readily available data were acquired
relating to (1) wind directions and velocities, (2) distribution of loess,
(3) snow covering in -the loess regions. The officials of the U. S.
Weather Bureau both at Washington and at the Grand Haven station
kindly furnished an abuudancc of meteorologiral data by maps and
otherwise. These were diligently studied to tind indications of a possi-
ble bare spot of loess where the prevailing wind could have done the
work.

McLOUTH ON DUST SHOWER.

171

^'

y L--i._._

'— 1 i

)_.-._,

- -L

Map2

Map showing wiud directions and velocities in relation to loess soil regions January 26r
1902. Data taken from reports of U. S. Weather Bureau.
Snow covering was essentially as shown on map of January 27.
The loess is shaded.

The known extent of loess in the United States is in comparatively
narrow belts along the rivers Mississippi, Missouri and Ohio. Its near-
est approach to Grand Haven is in southern Wisconsin, distant 150
miles. It extends westward across Missouri and southern Iowa beyond
Omaha and Sioux City, more than 500 miles from the east shore of Lake

Michigan.

I

Map 3

U

y

H

■A ^-^L H

--••r^ sVi...--7

V •

■ ' ■ ^ y% f

. Map showing wind directions and velocities, also approximate extent of snow covering, in

relation to loess soil regions, Jannarv 2.'>, 10(V2.
Meteorological data taken from reports of V. S. Weather Bureau.
Approximate lioundary of the loess is shown l)y dotted line.

172

MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE,

4. Map showing wind directions and velocities, also extent of snow covering, in relation to

loess soil regions, January 27, 1902.
Meteorological data taken from reports of Weather Bureau.
The loess is shaded.

On January 20, just one week before the dustfall, the loess region,
except in the Ohio valley was mostly under a thin cover of snow. On
the date of the shower the area of snow had been greatly extended,
especially westward, and the depth considerably increased. Much of
the loess was then under six inches and more of snow, but the tract
nearest to us in southern Wisconsin was outside the three inch limit and
some of it may have been practically bare. In middle Nebraska, South
Dakota and in southern and western Illinois the snow covering was also
light and in these regions there may have been some exposed soil. These-
conditions had remained essentially unchanged during 48 hours or more
preceding the dustfall. It remained then to choose whether the dust had
probably been raised in remote parts and its long transit made longer in
time and space by shifting winds or whether it had been transported from
the nearest locality in the course of a few hours.

On January 25, when the storm center was far west, the winds were
light and mostly from eastward over the Mississippi and lower Missouri
valleys. The snow cover had not been materially increased since the
twentieth but there was not sufficient energy in the winds to disturb an
exposed surface of the lightest soil. On the following morning, after
most of the new snow had fallen, the winds were decidedly stronger and
mostly from westward. The highest velocity reported by the Weather
Bureau was 36 miles per hour at Duluth. Other significant records were:
St. Paul, 20; Milwaukee, 14; Des Moines, 12; Davenport, 12; Sioux City,.
20; Omaha, 18; Chicago, 18; Kansas City, 18. These velocities are not
high but they indicate a general movement of air currents of considerable
force.

On the twenty-seventh the general direction of the winds was from the-
w^est but velocities had become much lower west of the Mississippi. In
the lake region velocities remained about as on the previous date. a»

McLOUTH ON DUST SHOWER. 173

follows: Grand Ilaven, 26; Milwaukee, 12; Green Bay, 14; Chicago, 16.
These it must be understood were not maximum velocities but velocities
at moment of taking data for the daily report. At Grand Haven on this
date the maximum 1-minute record was 42 miles per hour at 9:17 a. m.
and the maximum 5-minute record was 37 miles per hour at noon. Quite
probably there was a similar rise in velocities above the morning records
at stations on the west side of Lake Michigan, and these strong winds
may have caught up the material in southern Wisconsin during the fore-
noon and swept it across the lake at 50 miles per hour in the upper cloud
regions.

It is plain that the evidence I have been able to accumulate up to time
of writing is quite insufficient to make a satisfactory demonstration. At
first thought it seemed that only a spiral wind of tornado violence could
have lifted such a mass high in air where it could be sustained and carried
on air currents that probably did not exceed a velocity of 50 miles an
hour, but no disturbance of that nature is indicated in any of the weather
reports. The dust was raised and carried by winds that are frequently
exceeded in violence and equalled in constancy. It would seem therefore
that we should have about twenty dust showers each year rather than one
in about twenty years.

Besides persons and institutions named before I am indebted to Mr.
Frank Leverett of the U. S. Geological Survey for important information
on extent of the loess, also to numerous correspondents through whom I
have been able to approximate the limits of the fall.

Muskegon, March 26, 1902.

1V4 michiga:n academy of science.

WIDTH OF MEANDER BELTS.

BY MARK S. W. JEFFERSON. PROFESSOR OF GEOGRAPHY STATE NORMAL COLLEGE,

Y'PSILANTI,

(Full Paper in National Geographic Magazine. Extract of Conclusions Read).

The meandering of rivers is known to vary with their size. Of those
streams of gentle gradient which affect a winding course, the larger
wander farther from side to side.

An attempt to determine the relation between volume and width of
meander belt failed from insufficiency of available data, but suggested
that width was far the most important element of volume to affect
meandering.

From a study of the best mapped rivers in Europe and this country it
appears that the extreme width of country over which the meanders range
from side to side before being abandoned by "cut-offs" in the course of
the river is about 18 times the width of the stream when bank full. Thus
a stream with well marked banks averaging 100 feet apart may meander
from side to side over a belt of country 1,800 feet wide. At this width
cut-offs are almost certain to occur. They often occur at far less width.

The argument is empirical from tabulated measurements. Theoretical
considerations are cited to account for tendencies, i. e., qualitatively, but
no reason is found for the ratio 18 to 1.

FORCE ON SMALLPOX. 175

WORK OF THE STATE HOARD OF HEALTH FOR THE RESTRIC-
TION AND l»REVENTION OF SMALLPOX.

BY WILl.IA.M M. FOIU'E^ ("LERK IN THE OFFK'E OF TUB STATE BOARD OF HEALTH.

Some of the Early Work.

The woi'k of tlio State Board of Health for the restrietion and pre-
vention of smallpox ]»ra('tically began with the establishing of the board.
The act establishing the board took effect July 30, 1873, and in September
of that year a circular was issued by the board and sent to the clerk of
eyery townshi]), city and village, re(iuesting such clerk, in case smallpox
should become epidemic in his locality, to make a special rej)ort of the
same to the secretary of the board, in order that the conditions of the
progress and decline of the disease could be thoroughly studied. In
October of the same year, another circular was issued to the practicing
physicians of Michigan relative to the law requiring the reporting of all
cases of smallpox to the board of health or health officer where such
disease existed. With the circular was sent a form of notice recom-
mended by the board.

Rules and Regulations.

In 1875 the board recommended and published rules and regulations
for local boards to adopt, among Avhich were the following : The vaccina-
tion of every child before- two years of age ; the vaccination of all em-
ployees of incorjtorated manufacturing companies; the vaccination of all
members of public schools, and the revaccination of all persons as often
as once in every five years. These rules were highl}' commended by the
Sanitary Record of London, England, except the one recommending the
vaccination of every child before two years of age, the editor much pre-
ferring the English requirement that every child must be vaccinated
before three months old.

Influence of yacvination.

In 1875, Arthur Hazelwood, M. I)., of Gi-and Rapids, then a member of
the board, was requested to prepare a paper on "The Influence of Vac-
cination," giving statistics of deaths from smallpox before and since the
practice of vaccination. The paper was prepared and published in the
annual report of the board for 187G. In closing Dr. Hazelwood said:
"That vaccination is worthy of the confidence it enjo3'S in the minds of
the medical profession and of the public generality, is to my mind as posi-
tive as any well established truth can be. And also that any parent who
wilfully neglects to have his child vaccinated, not only exposes said child
to a not remote possibility of contagion from smallpox, but also main-
tains by that neglect a possible center of infecting his neighbors. * * *
I would not favor a compulsory law, but hope that all people will investi-
gate for themselves and that an enlightened public opinion shall demand

176 MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

for its own welfare, not b}^ compulsion, but by enlightenment, an early
vaccination of all infants."

In 1876 the first attempt was made to commence the important work
of placing- upon record the facts relative to the prevalence or absence of
smallpox, with a view of eventually learning the conditions which exist
during periods of time particularly noticeable either for the prevalence
or absence of the disease.

Local Boards of Health must Imve a Health Officer.

While the law establishing the State Board also required the health
physician, and also the clerk of the local board of health in each township,
city and village, at least once in each year to report to the State Board
of Health and to make special reports w^henever required to do so by the
State Board, yet considerable diflSculty was experienced because of the
lack of appointment of health physicians or officers by the local boards
of health. Early in 1877, through the influence of the board, a law was
passed requiring every towmship board of health to have a health officer,
and requiring the name and postoffice address of such health officer to be
transmitted to the State Board of Health, and a little later the Attorney
General gave an opinion that this law applied to cities and villages where
the charter did not conflict. In 1879 a law was passed making the law
applicable to cities and villages, unless the charters of such cities and
villages contained provisions inconsistent therewith. This law greatly
aided the board in its work for the restriction and prevention of smallpox,
as it eventually resulted in placing in the records of the office the name
of the health officer for nearly every township, city and village in the
State.

Local Boards Urged to Offer Free Vaccination.

Several outbreaks of smallpox having occurred in some parts of the
State during the winter of 1876-7, it became apparent that a more gen-
eral vaccination was needed, and in July, 1877, the board adopted a
resolution, urging all local boards of health to direct their health officer
or physician to offer free vaccination with bovine virus to every child
not previously vaccinated, and to all other persons not vaccinated within
the last five years, the expense to be paid by the locality. This resolu-
tion was largely distributed throughout the State.

Propagation of Bovine Virus.

Previous to this, and in January, 1877, a request was made to the
board that the State Board of Health and the State Agricultural College
should cooperate in the propagation of bovine virus for the use of physi-
cians practicing in the State, and the committee to whom the communica-
tion was referred afterwards reported that inasmuch as E. L. Griffin,
M. D., of Fon du Lac, Wisconsin, was then making a specialty of supply-
ing reliable bovine virus at a moderate cost, and had appointed Geo. E.
Ranney, M. D., of Lansing, his agent, therefore all inquiries for reliable
bovine virus, could, with propriety, be referred to either Dr. Griffin or
Dr. Ranney. A resolution was afterwards adopted thanking Dr. Ranney
for his trouble in securing and rendering accessible to physicians and
others in the State, reliable non-humanized cowpox virus.

B'ORCE ON SMALLPOX. 177

Law Autliorizing Free Vaccination.

In 1879, through the efforts of the board, a law was passed authorizing
local boards of health to offer free vaccination with bovine virus.

First Document issued on the Prevention and Restriction of Smallpox.

Eighteen hundred eighty-one finds the board making a more thorough
and systematic effort for the prevention and restriction of smallpox.
Early in the year it was voted that a smallpox document should be printed
to the number of 30.000 copies, and that the document should also be
translated into German and Holland languages and 5,000 copies of each
printed. The document consisted of a sixteen-page pamphlet, the first
six pages relating to the prevention of smallpox by vaccination and
revaccination, some of the subjects treated being, "Why vaccinate," "Who
should be vaccinated," "Who should not be vaccinated," etc. The remain-
ing ten pages related to the restriction of smallpox, some of the subjects
considered being disinfection, care of convalescents, hospitals for the
sick, nurses and the necessary supplies, and the law relating to the same.

Notional Board of Health urged to enforce Rules.

In July 1881 preambles and resolutions were adopted requesting the
National Board of Health to enforce rules requiring the inspection of
immigrants, to secure vaccination and revaccination, and to take such
other action necessary to prevent the introduction of smallpox into this
country, and especiallj- into Michigan by the way of Port Huron.

Neiu Circular Letter and Blanks prepared.

In October 1881 a circular letter to be used in connection with other
<liseases was devised, and as soon as information was received of an out-
break of snmllpox this Tetter was sent calling the attention of the health
officer to his duties in restricting the disease, and transmitting for liberal
distribution copies of the document issued by the board for the prevention
and restriction of smallpox. The letter was sent to many localities and
many local boards were thus spurred into action which otherwise might
have allowed the disease to increase without any effort for its restriction.
In November 1882 a blank form, designated as blank (K), to be used for
a special final report relative to smallpox, as well as other diseases, was
first sent out, and some of the principal information asked for was: the
source of contagium, the date of the occurrence of the first and last case,
the total number of cases occurring, including deaths, the measures taken
to restrict the spread of the disease, the success attending the efforts at
restriction, and facts bearing upon the period of incubation. A little
later, in order to facilitate and better systematize the reporting of small-
pox and other dangerous communicable diseases, a blank form designated
as blank (L.), for notice of first case of outbreak, and a blank form,
designated as blank (M.), for weekly reports during the continuance of
the disease were printed and sent out to all health officers, or to presi-
dents of boards of health for which no health officer had been returned,
asking for reports, with the hope that through the medium of these special
reports more knowledge might be gained for publication by the board as
to the best methods for preventing the spread of dangerous communicable
23

178 MICaiGAN ACADEMy OF SCIENCE.

diseases. A large number of replies were soon received which showed a
widespread interest among the people, and a commendable effort upon the
part of the local health authorities to have every means employed to pre-
vent the spread of dangerous communicable diseases.

Dissemination of Information.

From May 6, 1882, to October 1, 1882, about 11,500 copies of the small-
pox document in the English language were distributed through the State.
Also papers on "How to Combat Smallpox," "The Ambulance Hospital for
Smallpox," and "Vaccination : Jenner vs. Bergh," were read at sanitary
conventions held at Ann Arbor and Greenville, which were afterwards
printed in pamphlet form and quite widely distributed.

Inspection of Immigrants.

In May 1882 a conference of representatives of the National Board of
Health and of several state and local boards of health, was held at Port
Huron, which resulted in the establishing of a system of inspection of
immigrants at Port Huron and Detroit. The inspection began June 1,
1882, and continued at Detroit until December 15, 1882, and at Port
Huron until May 31, 1883. The inspectors were placed under the super-
vision of the secretary of the State Board of Health, and the law and
regulations inaugurated related to smallpox and the vaccination of immi-
grants. During the time the inspection was in effect over 83,000 immi-
grants were inspected and over 20,000 vaccinations were performed. A
total of 251 persons sick on train or boat were found, and that more cases
of smallpox were not found by the inspectors does not indicate that the
inspection was not needed. Before the inspection began smallpox was
known to hav<; been introduced, and the fact that inspections were en-
forced doubtless was a check on the forwarding of persons sick with small-
pox. A fact established by the inspection was that it was not enough
that the immigrant should be protected against smallpox by vaccination,
but he should be prevented from conveying the contagium of the disease
to others, if he had been exposed to smallpox at the port of departure or
entry, or on board ship; even though himself protected by vaccination or
a previous attack, only a thorough disinfection of his clothing and bag-
gage could, with certainty, guard against his communicating the disease
to others and render him a clean and desirable immigrant.

'e'

Danfjcr of Introduction of Smallpox.

In May 1883 a circular letter was issued and sent to officers and mem-
bers of local boards of health calling attention to the fact that during the
past year over 100 outbreaks of smallpox occurred in Michigan, due to its
introduction by immigration and other travel; that the disease was then,
present in many places from which many visitors came to the various
delightful i>laces of summer resort in Michigan; that another source of
danger was in localities where lumbering was a prominent business, and
urging the importance of being watchful to detect the very first introduc-
tion of the disease, and prompt action for its restriction as soon as
detected.

FORCE ON SMALLPOX. 179

Lumber Camps Warned

Because of the danjijer of the introduction of smallpox into Michigan
by the thousands of French-Oauadians who early in the fall flock to the
lumbering camps, a circular letter was sent to the local health authorities
in such jurisdictions in thirty- three counties in which lumbering interests
were carried on, and also to 59 prominent lumbermen in different parts of
the State, urging the importance of vaccination, and asking for the names
and addresses of all owners, contractors and foremen of lumbering camps,
and requesting cooperation for the public good. In response to these
letters 419 names were secured, to whom a letter was sent, urging the
extreme importance of vaccinating all of their employees, both as a protec-
tion to themselves and the public. As a result of the activities of the board
in this direction there is abundant evidence that much was accomplished
in influencing a more general vaccination of the people, especially in the
lumbering districts.

•&

Inspection of Immigrants Again Estahlislied.

In August 1885 the danger of the introduction of smallpox into Michi-
gan from Montreal seemed so great that the U. S. Marine Hospital Service,
after being earnestly requested by the State Board of Health and also by
the Governor, established a train inspection service at Port Huron and
Detroit, and agreed to maintain the same until the law, Act 230, Laws of
1885, placing a contingent appropriation to prevent the introduction of
dangerous communicable diseases into the State, at the disposal of the
Governor, should go into effect on September 18, 1885. The inspection
was continued and supervised bv the State Board of Health from Sep-
tember 18, 1885, until October 1885, when the U. S. Marine Hospital
Service again took charge of the work and continued the same until
December 31, 1885, when it was discontinued. As to the efflciency of the
work. President Avery in his annual address to the board in January 1887,
said : "There can be no question but that the practical exemption of the
people of this State from smallpox during the prevalence of an epidemic
in a neighboring province, that paralyzed business and claimed more than
four thousand victims, in 1885, was due to the efficient immigration in-
spection service inaugurated by the Michigan State Board of Health and
afterwards continued by the national health authorities."^

Vaccination and Revaccination again Urged.

In 1888 smallpox having made its appearance at several places in
Michigan, and having been reported as being present in some of the sur-
rounding states and provinces, a printed letter headed "Smallpox. Now is
a good time to be vaccinated," was sent to all health officers urging prompt
action for the prevention of smallpox by vaccination and revaccination,
and to promptly notify the State Board of the occurrence of any sus-
picious cases.

In 1889 the document relative to the prevention and restriction of small-
pox was revised and printed and a large number distributed during the
year.

Again in 1891, smallpox having been reported to be present in all of
the bordering states, except Indiana, a leaflet entitled "The Prevention of

180 MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

Smallpox. Now is a good time to be Vaccinated," was printed and
widely distributed tLroup;hoiit tbe State, and was favorablj commented
on by the press of the State.

Important Law Enacted.

In 1891 an important law was passed, providing that no person affected
with smallpox shall wilfully enter a public place or conveyance, nor in
any way wilfully subject another person to danger of conti'acting small-
pox, nor in any way knowingly or wilfully expose, aid in exposing, or
cause to be exposed any person to smallpox, and providing a penalty for
whoever shall violate said law.

Micliigan-Canadiaii Inspection of Immigrants.

On September G, 1892, the Michigan-Canadian Inspection of Immigrants
was inaugurated by the board and was discontinued January 13, 1894;
this was probably the most complete and satisfactory inspection system
the board has ever maintained, and the comparative freedom from small-
pox during that period speaks well for the work done.

The Prevention of Smallpox.

lu May 1S94, sinalli)0x being quite widespread throughout the United
States, and being then present in four places in this State, and by reason of
the recent neglect of vaccination and revaccination, because of the com-
parative freedom from smajlpox during the last few years, a leaflet
entitled "The Prevention of Smallpox," setting forth the fact that the
danger from smallpox was now great; that it was a good time to be
vaccinated, and urging every local board of health to recommend general
vaccination and revaccination, and to offer free vaccination to all who
were not able to jjay for the same, was printed and widely distributed
throughout the State.

In 1891 a specially prepared circular letter was printed' and used for
smallpox alone, as was also a blank for special final reports of outbreaks
when closed, as it was found that the letters and blanks used for other
diseases did not meet the requirements relative to smallpox. The letter
transmitted documents on the. prevention and restriction of smallpox,
for dislriltution by the healtli officer to neighbors of families in which
the disease was jiresent, and urged that ])rompt, thorough, and persistent
measures be eni])loyed for the restriction of the disease; also urging that
general vaccination and revaccination be publicly recommended by the
local boiird of hcaltli. and free vacciinilion olfcreil to all who were not able
to i)ay for the same, and transmiUed blanks for special weekly reports so
long as the disease was present. The blank for the final report asked for
specific information relative to the source of contagium, what means were
employed for the restriction of the disease, and the evidences of success
■attending llic efforts for the restriction of the disease.

Important Legislation.

In 18!)5 the board secured the passage of an act b}- the Legislature pro-
viding for the teaching in the public schools, the modes by which the
dangerous conimnnicable diseases are spread and the best methods for

FORCE ON SMALLPOX.

181

the restriction and prevention of such diseases. This is believed to be
one of the most important laws ever passed by the Legislature in the
interests of public health, as it brings directly into the homes of the
people, through the many thousands of school children who attend the
public schools, the necessary knowledge for the restriction and preven-
tion of the dangerous communicable diseases.

Some of the Results of the Work.

That the early work of the board, and the work of later years, has
resulted in much good is shown by the Vital Statistics, published by the
Secretary of State, from which it is learned tliat the average deaths from
smallpox, per ten thousand inhabitants, during the five years, 1869-73,
before the board commenced its work for the prevention and restriction of
smallpox, was nearly six times as great as it was during the twenty -three
years, 1874-9G, after the board began its work for the prevention and :
restriction of the disease. This is graphically illustrated by diagram
[Plate 1129].

iSives saved by
Pullic Health ujork.
Comparison of Death-
Rat es in^jtachigaui
from Small fiox he/ore
and since the State
Board of Health com-
menced tolahor for
its restriction,
iComyJ3iled frorn
the State Depart -
menfs " Vital Stalls -
tlcs^cfMlchiigan.)

S

Reported deaths
yjser / 0,0
Snhahi tants.
Smallpox .

IU9-73.
{Before.)

(Since.)

i

O.TS

^S

•

■

QPLATE 1129 ]]

Some of the Present Work. — What is done whenever information is re-
ceived that smallpox is present in any locality in Michigan.

Whenever information is received at the oflSce of the secretary of the
State Board of Health that smallpox is, or recently has been present in
any township, city or village, the source and date of information is at

182 MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

once entered in a record book kept for that purpose, in which book is
kept a record of all correspondence and reports relative to smallpox
during the current year, together with the name of the township, city or
village from which the disease is reported, and the name and postofifice
address of the health officer, all of which is arranged alphabetically by
counties. A printed letter is then sent to the health officer of such town-
ship, city or village (if the name of the health officer has been reported to
this office; if not, then to the president of the board), mentioning the
reported existence of smallpox within his jurisdiction, transmitting
copies of the documents on the prevention and restriction of smallpox,
and asking the health officer to distribute such documents where they will
do the most good, and suggesting that if distributed to the neighbors of
the families in which smallpox is present, they will be most likely to be
read with interest and profit. With the letter is sent a blank form (L) for
notice of the first case occurring, and blank form (M) for special weekly
reports during the continuance of the disease. On the back of the letter
are printed the questions which should be answered in the final report,
the blank for the final report being sent after the outbreak is believed to
be ended.

Some of tlie Reeornincndations and Sii(/(/cstions for the Prevention and
Restriction of Smallpox. — Health Offieer to Investigate.

Whenever the health officer shall receive notice from any reliable source
or shall otherwise have good reason to believe that a case of smallpox is,
or recently has been present in his jurisdiction, he should at once investi-
gate in accordance with Act 137, Laws of 1883, which also requires the
health officer to keejj the secretary of the State Board of Health "con-
stantly informed.'' and to act promptly even if his board takes no action.

Isolation of Sick and Infected Persons.

The law requires the health officer to order the prompt and thorough
isolation of those sick and infected so long as there is danger of their
communicating the disease to others. Every suspected case should be
carefully isolated. Isolation means that communication of the sick and
infected persons with well persons, and the movement of any article from
the infected room or premises, shall be absolutely cut off, unless such
communication is carried on under the supervision of a competent per-
son. Except it be disinfected, no letter or paper should be sent through
the mails from an infected place.

What to do ivith Persons Exposed to Smallpox.

The law also requires the health officer to order the prompt vaccination
or isolation of all persons who have been exposed to smallpox. If the
exposed persons will be vaccinated and then take a bath, and disinfect
their hands, hair, and beard if any, and have their clothing disinfected,
they can then be allowed their liberty, providing they are kept under the
surveillance of the health officer, and will report at least once a day to the
health officer, for a ])eriod of at least sixteen days from the date of last
exposure; but upon the appearance of any of the symptoms of smallpox,
such as headache, backache, chills or fever, or if any eruption should
appear, especially upon the face or hands, then they should be isolated at

for(;e on smallpox. 183

once to await fuither developments. Even if the ex[)osure was seven or
eight (lays previous, the ])ei'son should be vaccinated, as it may yet
modify, if it does not ])revent tlie disease. Jf ihe exposed persons will not
be vaccinated then they should be is-olated lor at least sixteen days from
the dal(i of last exposure, and then if there are no symptoms or signs of
the disease, they may be released after taking a balh and disinfecting
llu'ir i)ersons and clothing.

The attendants on the sick, llio licaKli olliccr and (lie attending physi-
cian, should be immediately vaccinated, if n(»t recently successfully vac-
cinated. After visiting a smallpox ])ntient, the health officer or physician
should have a tlioi-ough change of clothing before seeing any person. The-
clothing should be disinfected by fumes of burning sulphur, or by formal-
dehyde gas, in a tight room or box, burning sulphur at the rate of three
pounds, or using eiglit ounces of a forty per cent solution of formaldehyde,
to each ].(I00 cubic feet of air Kj>ace, the exposure to be at least for Three
hours. When clianging the clothing, the physician or health officer should
have a thorough bath; and disinfect his hands, hair, and beard if any,
for which purpose physicians sometimes use a solution of mercuric chlor^
ide, one part to om* thousand of water or cologne. The hands of nurses
may perhaps be disinfected by washing in a solution of chlorinated soda.
The nose and throat are most liable to harbor the si)ecitic cause of small-
pox, and should, as far as possible, be cleaned, gargled and disinfected..
Every used hr.ndkerchief should be carefully guarded until disinfected.

Disinfection hy the Health Officer.

The law requires the health officer to disinfect rooms, clothing and
premises, and all articles likely to be infected, before allowing their use
by persons other than those in isolation. The disinfection should be
done with fumes of burning sulphur, or with formalhehyde gas, burning
at least three pounds of sulphur, or vaporizing at least eight ounces of a
forty per cent solution of formaldehyde for each one thousand cubic feet
of air space. This subject is treated at length in the Bulletin on the
Kestriction of Smallpox.

Vaccination and Revaccination.

The State Board of Health recommends and urges that every local
board of health in Michigan should, whenever smallpox is present or
threatening, meet promptly and publicly recommend general vaccination
and revaccination of all persons not successfully vaccinated within the
last five years, and offer free vaccination with bovine virus to all who
are not able to pay for the same. It has long been known that smallpox
can be prevented or modified by vaccination, and a widespread epidemic
can be attributed only to an equally widespread ignorance or willfulness
concerning smallpox and its prevention by vaccination. This subject is
treated very fully and at length in the document on "Vaccination and
Revaccination,— The Prevention of Smallpox," which document is being
widely distributed throughout the State.

Where to Obtain Fresh and Pure Bovine Virus.

Whenever smallpox is present to any extent, a large number of com-
munications are received, asking if the State Board of Health supplies

184 MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

virus, and if not where it can be obtained. This has resulted in printing
in the circular letter and in the document on the Prevention of Smallpox
the names of a few of the reliable propagators of bovine virus; such as
Dr. Charles N. Hewitt of Red Wing, Minn. ; Dr. Henry A. Martin and son,
Roxbury Station, Boston, Mass., and H. M. Alexander & Co., of Marietta,
Pa. Also the information that virus is for sale by Parke, Davis & Co.,
of Detroit, and by most druggists, and that the State Board of Health
does not supply vaccine virus.

Reports; to the ^tate Board of HeaUh.

All blanks for reports to the State Board of Health are supplied by
that office. The reports should be specific and carefully filled out. An
outbreak report on blank (L) of the first case, special weekly reports on
blank (M) during the continuance of the outbreak, and a special final
report upon blank (Q) when the outbreak is over and after disinfection
of the infected premises and articles has taken place, is asked for in each
instance, even if only one case occurred in the outbreak. These reports
are asked for under See. 8, Act 81, Laws of 1873, which requires special
reports to be nuide to the State Board of Health whenever asked for by
said Board.

The blank for the special final report is sent after the outbreak is
believed to be ended, which report, if accurately and carefully made, will
give valuable information as to the source of contagium and mode of in-
troduction of the disease into the jurisdiction; the number of cases and
deaths; whether the spread of the disease was restricted; whether vaccina-
tion is a prevention of smallpox ; the number and proportion of the people
vaccinated or revaccinated ; the precautions and methods taken to restrict
the spread of the disease; the period "of incubation; and whether or not
the fumigation by fumes of burning sulphur or by formaldehyde is efiicient
as a disinfectant, which, together with many other important facts, may
be published for general use in the Annual Reports of the Board.

Diagnosis of Smallpox.

During the presence of smallpox the question is often asked, not only
by health officers who are not physicians, but by those who are physicians,
how can we tell smallpox from chicken-pox, and during the epidemic of
the mild type of the disease, the question was of almost daily occurrence.
The usual answer given is, that if the person first has a headache, back-
ache, chills or fever, followed by an eruption in about three days, the fever
subsiding when the eruption appears, the eruption first being papular
(pimples), then vesicular (watery blisters), some of the vesicles then
becoming umbilicated, then pustular (having pus in them), then the dis-
ease is smallpox.

The inquirer is cautioned that adults seldom have chicken-pox, and
that it is well to bear in mind that a vesicular eruption occurring in a
child over ten or twelve years of age, and especially in an adult, is open
to grave suspicion; that usually the first sign observed, and before the
fever or other symptoms occur in chicken-pox is the appearance of the
eruption, which attains its full development in a few hours, the eruption
being accompanied by a rise in temperature; that some of the vesicles
may become umbilicated, remaining so until they dry down into a scab;

FORCE ON SMALLPOX. 185

that the eruption ai)i)ears in successive crops, each running an inde-
pendent course, so that all forms of the vesicles may be seen side
by side; that the eruption first appears upon the trunk and spreads ir-
regularly over ihe entire body, being most abundant upon the back and
breast and least so upon the face, where it is usually limited to the fore-
head. The health officer is advised that because smallpox has so often
been diagnosed as chicken-pox and the mild form of smallpox having made
the error more common than formerly, the same precautions should be
taken in all cases of chicken-pox as are taken in cases of recognized small-
pox, until it is proved beyond a doubt that the disease is not smallpox,
thus giving the public health interests t-he benefit of every doubt.

State Inspector of Dangerous Communicable Diseases.

Act No. 47, Laws of 1893, provides among other things for the pre-
vention and spread of dangerous communicable diseases within the State
of Michigan, and also provides for the appointment of an inspector by
the State Board of Health; and whenever it shall be shown to the satis-
faction of the State Board of Health that a dangerous communicable dis-
ease exists in any locality within the State and that there is danger of
the disease being spread from that locality, the State Board of Health
may establish a system of quarantine for such locality, to prevent persons
who are likely to carry infection from going from place to place, and
to detain them at the place where they have been exposed, until in the
opinion of the State Board of Health such persons are free from all
danger of infection. During the epidemic of mild form of smallpox, many
applications have been made to the Board for an expert, or for the State
Inspector to be sent to assist in diagnosing the disease, and to assist
in restrictive measures being taken for the prevention of the spread of
the disease. Whenever it has been shown to the satisfaction of the Board
that there was danger of the disease spreading and that the local health
authorities were unable, or were not taking any precautions to prevent
the disease spreading, the State Inspector has been sent, but in no case
has it been necessary for the State Board of Health to establish a system
of quarantine, the State Inspector having in each instance succeeded in
arousing the local health authorities to take action for the restriction of
the disease. In many other instances where the facts would not warrant
the sending of the State Inspector at State expense, he has gone at the
expense of the locality where such disease existed, and in each instance
has rendered valuable assistance to the local health authorities.

Some of the difficulties experienced hy the State Board of Health in its
Work for the Prevention and Restriction of the mild form of Small-
pox. — Failure of Physicians to recognize the Disease.

Many of the older physicians who have had experience with more severe
types of smallpox have failed to recognize the mild form, and at first
called the disease, chicken-pox, "Cuban itch," "cedar itch," syphilis, im-
petigo contagiosa, or acne, and did not report to the health oflQcer so that
restrictive measures could be taken. Other younger physicians who have
had but little experience, if any, with smallpox, have consequently failed
to recognize the disease and therefore did not report to the health officer.
Some of the physicians still insist that the disease is not smallpox, and
24

186 MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

Michigan is not the only State having trouble along that line. In Ohio,
an old physician who insisted that the disease was not smallpox, said "If
this is smallpox we must rewrite all our text books on the subject;" but
when asked "How about chicken-pox?" admitted that the same would be
equally true if the prevailing disease was chicken-pox. In this State, other
old practitioners, who at first doubted the disease being smallpox, have,
after having had a number of cases and seeing the disease in all its forms,
become convinced that it is smallpox in a mild and modified form.

Failure of Health Officers and Health Authorities to Act.

In a few instances the failure to restrict the spread of the disease has
been because the health officer refused to accept the diagnosis of the at-
tending physician, and at first utterly failed to do anything for the pre-
vention or restriction of the disease. In a few instances the local board of
health has failed to cooperate with the health officer for the restriction of
the disease. The office of the State Board of Health has uniformly urged,
and with perhaps one or two exceptions, finally succeeded in arousing the
local health authorities to action, but sometimes not until the disease
had gained a strong foothold, and considerable difficulty has been ex-
perienced in attempting to stamp out the disease.

Failure of cooperation mioii the jxirf of the People.

In man}' of the milder cases of the disease there has been an entire lack
of cooperation upon the part of those having the disease, and of those
in whose homes the disease was present. When the attention of the
health authorities has been called to the fact that the disease was present,
there has been an attempt, not only upon the part of those having small-
pox, but also upon the part of their friends, to cover up or hide from
the authorities all of the facts possible, denying that they have or did
have the disease. In some instances the cases have entirely recovered
before the health officer had any knowledge that the disease
was present in his jurisdiction and when the health officer has
attempted to disinfect the infected premises, he has often been met
with stubborn resistance, and there is no doubt that in some instances
there have been cases that have been so mild that no physician has been
called, and they have thus entirely escaped the attention of the health
authorities, therefore nothing has been done in the way of disinfecting
the infected premises, and they have thus remained centers of infection.

Lach of Vaccination and Rcvaccination.

The comparative freedom from smallpox in this State previous to the
beginning of the epidemic of the mild form, undoubtedly led the people
to become careless and neglect vaccination and rcvaccination, and upon
this point the report of the health officer of one of our cities is as follows :
"Not only was the mildness of this epidemic a phenomenal surprise, but
the large number of unvaccinated adults, as well as school children,
brought to light by the necessary vaccination rules of our city Board of
Health ; and the number discovered of unbelievers in the value of vaccina-
tion as a prophylactic against smallpox, was really astonishing, and is a
matter calculated to cause every medical man to view the situation of
the country with apprehension."

FORCE ON SMALLPOX. 187

There has also been an attempt, not only upon the part of the people,
but also upon the part of a few physicians, to prove that vaccination does
not prevent the mild form of smallpox, but upon a close investigation of
these allegations tlioy have, almost without exception, proved to be with-
out foundation. The following is but a fair sample of many reports
received. ''Among the whole number of those exposed none took the dis-
ease who had been vaccinated, and of thirty cases who contracted small-
pox in this epidemic, none had been successfully vaccinated, or could show
ibe faintest sign of a mark."

At attempt has also been made upon the part of some physicians to
prove that the disease Avas not smallpox, by vaccinating their patients
after recovery, but in most of the cases they have obtained negative re-
sults. While in a few instances it is claimed that the vaccination worked
successfully, and they have thus claimed that it was not smallpox; how-
ever, this does not seem to be conclusive evidence, as in an outbreak at the
beginning of the epidemic of mild smallpox, this question arose, and a
health officer who is an old practictioner in one of the counties of this
State, referring to the statement that vaccination would prove beyond a
doubt whether it was chicken-pox or smallpox, said: "Now this state-
ment is without foundation in fact. Let me give you the evidence. Dr.
Erasmus Wilson, F. R. S., of London, says in his work on skin diseases,
7th American from 6th and revised English edition, page 456, as follows :

Vaccinated after smallpox with success 32

Vaccinated after smallpox with modified success. ... 26
Vaccination after smallpox without effect 42

100

Revaccinated with success 34

Revaccinated with modified success 25

Revaccinated without eff'ect 41

100

"This shows the relative frequency of success in vaccination after small-
pox and after vaccination. Persons are known to have measles and scarlet
fever twice. There is no getting around this fact, and smallpox forms
no exception. Now the statement that a vaccination would settle the
question whether there had been smallpox or not is not conclusive, to
gay the least." Other physicians have claimed that vaccination after
smallpox, with success, did not prove that the disease was not smallpox.

Some of the evidences of the Success of the Efforts for the Prevention and
Restriction of Smallpox. — The Disease Restricted to the

One Household.

Notwithstanding the many difficulties which the State Board and the
local boards of health have had to contend with, in the prevention and
restriction of the mild form of smallpox, yet there are evidences of suc-
cess of the efforts along that line. During the year 1899, of the twenty-
four reported outbreaks of smallpox, fifteen, or sixty-two and one-half pgr
cent, were restricted to the one house where the first case occurred. In

188 MICHIGAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

1900, of the one hundred reported outbreaks, fifty-one per cent were re-
stricted to the one house where the first case occurred. The final data
for 1901 is not yet avaihible, but from evidences at hand the indications
are that the per cent of outbreaks restricted to the one house where the
first case occurred will be at least sixty per cent; thus proving that the
continual urging of local boards of health to publicly recommend general
vaccination and revaccination of all persons not successfully vaccinated
within the last five years, and the offering of free vaccination to all who
are not able to pay for the same; the isolation of all sick and infected
persons so long as there is danger of their communicating the disease, and
the vaccination or isolation of all jjersons exposed to smallpox, has been
the cause of much good resulting therefrom.

THE AERATION OF MILK.

C, E. MARSHALL.

Perhaps no question connected with the production of milk for city
consumption and for the manufacture of butter and cheese has caused
so much agitation as aeration. It may be assigned largely to the fact
that aeration has had attributed to it a pregnancy of possibilities formu-
lated upon mere conjectures. Many assumptions have therefore followed
and the conclusion, that aeration is an essential factor in the production
of pure milk, has taken its place coordinately with cooling. This associa-
tion has been emphasized by the manufacture of combined aerators
and coolers. It has been recognized for many years that the animal
odors and taints are removed to a greater or less degree by the methods
of aeration now in vogue ; beyond that, nothing can be considered as
actually demonstrated, notwithstanding the work of several practical
dairymen to determine that it has a direct bearing upon many practical
dairy operations. The cooling of milk has been shown to be exceedingly
valuable bacteriologically and is thoroughly understood in this aspect,
still so intimately have aerating and cooling been connected that we at-
tribute to aeration what really belongs to the cooling and fail to disas-
sociate them into their individual capacities. Perhaps we can safely
assume from practical experience if milk becomes tainted in any
way either through the agency of food for the animal or through the
bacterial growth in the milk that the resulting taint is removed in a
perceptible degree and partially overcome for a time; if it is due to
bacterial growth the taint will return in time, unless aeration checks the
germs concerned, but if it is due 1o the food it may be permanently lessen-
ed. It should not be forgotten that by the lowering of the temperature
the odors and taints are reduced so far as the sense of smell can detect
but upon heating they return.

Arnold as early as 1871 made these statements: "Because the cowy
smell has died away when the milk is cooled down to 70° or below, it has
usually been supposed that the odor or cause of the odor was wholly
removed. But it is by no means necessarily so; for, unless the cooling
has been very slow, or the milk has been spread so thin as to make the

MAllSHALL ON THE AHKATION OF MILK. 189

exit of the gases easy, the cause ot the odor (the condensed gases) will
be there, and be readily detected by the taste; and at 58° or 00° it will
remain there until tlu^ milk sours. The cowy flavor is most effectually
preserved when the milk is cooled in a close vessel shut out from the air,
and the heat absorbed away by an application of ice and cold water."

Again : "The gas in milk varies both in quality and relative effect.
For instance, it is in the smallest amount when the cow is in good health
and quiet. It is more abundant when actively exercised, as when sharply
driven to the yard by dogs. It needs but little hurrying especially in
the morning, to make the effect apparent in cheese. It is di